The Waiwhero wetland (16 ha) is one of the largest wetlands in the Rosedale Hills, 35 km north-west of Nelson, New Zealand. It has an extensive cover of Salix fragilis L. (crack willow) and has been hypothesised to be a source of groundwater recharge for the Moutere aquifers, an important local groundwater system. However the wetland could also be a groundwater discharge zone, because of the geological boundary that it straddles. The overall aim of this study was to determine the direction of groundwater flux of the wetland by measuring the water balance, with particular emphasis on the transpiration rates from the crack willow trees. The average daily transpiration (measurement was for 230 days) of crack willows in the wetland (6.4 mm/day) was close to twice the potential evapotranspiration (PET) for grassland (3.9 mm/day). The highest measured willow transpiration rate was 12.4 mm/day and the lowest was 0.8 mm/day. High transpiration from crack willows was due to the horizontal energy fluxes (advective energy), tree physiological characters and high soil water content. The study established that the wetland is a groundwater discharge zone with, on average for the two summer periods (2008 and 2009), the net groundwater discharge being 4.8 mm/day. The daily water balance results between two major rainfall events showed that the initial discharge source was from the surrounding hills and later stabilized at around 6 to 14 mm/day. It was believed to be a contribution from the shallow and deep aquifers or a combination of local region inflow and aquifers. The water balance showed that the main loss of water through the hydrological system of the wetland during summer was from the high transpiration of willows (7.7 mm/day). The extent of water savings estimated for the 16 ha wetland through a hypothetical situation of willow removal, and the assumption that it is filled with open water without any canopy cover, was 688 m3/day. However this water savings rate if applied to a large area of crack willow stands would be quite high. On similar lines it is important to understand the transpiration rates of other wetland tree species in New Zealand. This information would help in preparing regional council plans for the introduction of tree species in the wetland for better management of the water resources and sustainable ecosystem management.

A geochemical approach to the evaluation of the chemistry of natural recharge processes in the Tucson basin was used to identify the major minerals controlling the evolution of ground water chemistry and to assess the viability of recharging imported Central Arizona Project water supplies. Well cuttings analyses and water quality samples from over 65 wells in the basin were used as input to the geochemical computer model PATH4 (Helgeson, 1970) and the sequence of aqueous species and mineral production in a recharge reference volume examined. The study reveals that natural processes in the basin lead to the increase in dissolved solids content in ground water over time and the production of secondary minerals such as calcite, calcium montmorillonite, kaolinite and poorly crystallized alumino-silicate phases. Secondary minerals grow into aquifer pore spaces and may, over time, be responsible for the reduction in aquifer porosity and the specific capacity of wells. The recharge of imported Central Arizona Project water will lead to an increase in the dissolved solids content of ground water and may, in certain areas of the basin, lead to the enhanced production of secondary minerals. The use of CAP water as a recharge source must be guided by the geochemical factors which influence the nature and scope of reactions between CAP water and the Tucson aquifer matrix. The study demonstrates the need for and identifies water quality and aquifer matrix criteria for the assessment of sources of recharge water and recharge facility sites. The use of geochemistry as a tool for quantitatively assessing ground water quality is demonstrated.

The variably saturated flow model Unsat 2 was used for three case study simulations of dry well recharge in the Tucson Basin, Arizona. Dry well design, and rainfall/runoff and vadose zone conditions representative of the locality were assumed in the simulations to address travel time to the regional aquifer, rates and extent of radial flow, and relative degree of solute attenuation by sorption and dilution with regional groundwater. Soil specific surface was used to estimate relative degree of sorption among the three cases. One case of uniform soil composition and two cases of layered soil composition were simulated. Clay content had the greatest influence on specific surface. Hydraulic conductivity had the greatest influence on soil water velocities and degree of radial flow. The presence of layered subsurface conditions that included strata of low hydraulic conductivity enhanced the degree of subsurface solute attenuation by sorption and dilution.

The purpose of this study was to determine if the chloride to bromide ratio (Cl/Br) of water imported via interbasin transfer can be used to trace the mixing of imported water with native ground water. Laboratory experiments and a chemical literature review indicate that chloride's and bromide's properties should make the Cl/Br a useful environmental ground-water tracer. This study has shown that the Cl/Br can be accurately quantified at environmental levels, is not attenuated by aquifer or soil media, is chemically stable, and is present in different levels in waters from different sources. Infiltration and mixing of irrigation water from the Colorado River (Cl/Br = 1300) with native ground water (Cl/Br = 630) was investigated at the Wellton-Mohawk Irrigation and Drainage District near Yuma, Arizona. The downgradient increase in the Cl/Br is correlated with distance from the upgradient limit of irrigation (r =.83), reflecting the chemical influence of infiltrating irrigation water.

East Valley Water District is located in San Bernardino, California which is approximately 50 miles east of Los Angeles. In order to meet future water demands, East Valley Water District plans to increase recharge activities in the forebay area of the San Bernardino groundwater basin and expand wellfield operations immediately downgradient. Three possible recharge and wellfield designs were under consideration with annual recharge rates increasing 10,000 to 20,000 acre-feet/year in the Santa Ana spreading basins. Approximately four to five new production wells pumping an equal quantity of groundwater have been proposed. A two-dimensional finite element groundwater flow model was constructed and calibrated to reproduce historical water level data for the year 1945. They calibrated model was applied to simulate the hydrologic effects of each of the three designs over a ten-year period.

No abstract available. / Thesis (M.Sc.Eng.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1973.

Klimatförändringarna kan komma att påverka den hydrologiska cykeln på en global skala. Förändringarna kommer tydligast att märkas på ytan, med ökande neder-bördsmängder, en ökad avdunstning och ett minskat snötäcke. Det som sker vid ytan har dock en stor inverkan på vad som sker med grundvattnet och varierar i hög grad mellan magasin, rådande klimat och markanvändning. Den Europeiska miljöby-rån har därför eftersökt att framtida grundvattenförhållanden undersöks på lokala ni-våer. Hedesundaåsen valdes till denna studie på grund av att dess vattenmagasin an-vänds som dricksvattentäkt, utan mänsklig modifiering på dess tillrinning. Inga lik-nande studier har tidigare utförts på Hedesundaåsen. Den är en rullstensås i Gävle-borgs län som förser befolkningen i Hedesunda med dricksvatten. Syftet med detta arbete har varit att presentera en bild över hur grundvattnet i Hedesundaåsen kan komma att påverkas i ett framtida klimat. Den hydrologiska modellen HBV-light kalibrerades för tidsperioden 2000-2009 med hjälp av meteorologiska mätvärden från SMHI, och validerades mot tidsperioden 2011-2017. Simuleringar utfördes för tidsperioderna 2022-2050 samt 2072-2100. I simuleringarna användes två vitt skilda framtidsscenarier för att täcka in en stor bredd över framtida möjliga scenarier. Simuleringarna i studien visade genomgående på trender med ökande grundvattennivåer och -bildning oavsett scenario. Beroende på valt scenario kan grundvattennivån enligt simuleringarna komma att öka med mellan 6,3–11,5 % och grundvattenbildningen med mellan 4,8–13,6 % för tidspe-rioden 2072-2100 jämfört med tidsperioden 1988-2017. En liknande studie som ti-digare genomfördes i ett närliggande område visade på en ökning av grundvatten-bildning med upp till 15 % i slutet av seklet. En jämförelse av resultaten mellan stu-dierna gör det troligt att resultaten från Hedesundaåsen mycket väl kan vara kor-rekta. Det står klart efter denna studie att klimatförändringarna kommer att påverka grundvattnet i Hedesunda i framtiden. Osäkerheterna om detaljerna är dock många, då de framtida scenarierna endast är en uppskattning över hur nederbörd, tempera-tur etc. kommer att påverkas i ett framtida klimat. Osäkerheten byggs på av att dessa faktorer används som en prognos i en hydrologisk modell som också innehåller osäkerheter från den matematiska modellen och framtidsscenarierna. Trots de många osäkerheterna kan simuleringarna ge en indikation över hur klimatföränd-ringarna kan komma att påverka grundvattnet i framtiden, och de kan användas för att förbereda samhället för möjliga framtida konsekvenser av grundvattnets föränd-rade kvantitet och i förlängningen även vattenkvaliteten. / Climate change may affect the hydrological cycle on a global scale. The changes will most clearly be noticed on the surface, with increasing precipitation amounts, in-creased evaporation and a reduced snow cover. What happens at the surface has a great impact on what happens to the groundwater, and varies greatly between the different water storages, the prevailing climate and land use. The European Environ-ment Agency has therefore sought to investigate future groundwater conditions at local levels. The Hedesunda esker was chosen for this study because it is used as a water source without human modification of its inflow. No similar studies have pre-viously been performed on the Hedesunda esker. It is an esker in Gävleborg County, which supplies drinking water to the population in Hedesunda. The purpose of this study has been to present how the groundwater in the Hedesunda esker may be af-fected in a future climate. The hydrological model HBV-light was calibrated for the time period 2000-2009 us-ing meteorological measurements from SMHI, and validated against the time period 2011-2017. Simulations were performed for the time periods 2022-2050 and 2072-2100. In the simulations, two widely different future scenarios were used to cover a large range of possible future scenarios. The simulations in the study consistently showed trends with increasing groundwater levels and recharge, regardless of the scenario. Depending on the chosen scenario, the groundwater level according to the simulations may increase by between 6.3–11.5 % and the groundwater recharge by between 4.8–13.6 % for the period 2072-2100. A similar study, previously con-ducted in a nearby area, showed an increase in groundwater recharge by up to 15 % at the end of the century. A comparison of the results between the studies makes it likely that the results from the Hedesunda esker may well be correct. It is clear after this study that climate change will affect the groundwater in Hede-sunda in the future. The uncertainties about the details are many, as the future sce-narios are only an estimate of how precipitation, temperature etc. will be affected in a future climate. The uncertainty is based on the fact that these factors are used as a forecast in a hydrological model, which also contains uncertainties from the mathe-matical model and the future scenarios. Despite the many uncertainties, the simula-tions can give an indication of how climate change may affect the groundwater in the future, and can be used to prepare society for possible future consequences of the groundwater's changed quantity and, in the long run, also the water quality.

Região Metropolitana de São Paulo, onde a disponibilidade hídrica foi classificada como \"Crítica\", durante os anos de 2014 e 2015 ocorreu um período de seca que originou a denominada \"crise hídrica\", agravando a situação dos mananciais que abastecem a região. Os estudos sobre mudanças climáticas demonstram não ser um fenômeno isolado e, diante disso, a adoção de tecnologias para reúso de água é essencial para aumentar a disponibilidade hídrica de locais que enfrentam cenários de escassez, como a RMSP. A recarga de aquíferos com efluentes tratados para reúso de água é uma técnica que, se adotada corretamente, pode trazer benefícios como o aumento do volume de água subterrânea disponível para a população. Para estudo da tecnologia, buscou-se como referência as plantas de Shafdan (Israel), Atlantis (África do Sul), Sabadell (Espanha), Adelaide (Austrália), avaliando principalmente os processos de tratamento, métodos de recarga e características qualitativas dos efluentes utilizados para recarga de aquíferos. Foram consultadas as legislações de Estados Unidos e da Espanha sobre o assunto e, com base nestas referências, foram adotados os seguintes requisitos de qualidade do efluente para recarga de aquíferos: sólidos suspensos (35 mg/L), carbono orgânico dissolvido (125,0 mg/L), DBO5,20 (25,0 mg/L), nitrato (25,0 mg/L) e Escherichia coli (1000 UFC/100 mL). A partir dos estudos de caso e das legislações, foi definido que o requisito mínimo de tratamento para recarga é o tratamento terciário para remoção de nitrogênio. Foi avaliada a replicabilidade desta técnica na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo através de comparativos entre os requisitos definidos e as características do efluente e da água de reúso produzida na RMSP em quatro cenários: legislação aplicável ao lançamento de efluentes tratados, características do efluente tratado a nível secundário de uma das ETEs da RMSP, características da água de reúso produzida na RMSP para usos urbanos e características da água de reúso produzida para uso industrial na planta Aquapolo. Verificou-se que atualmente apenas a água de reúso produzida no Aquapolo é submetida a tratamento terciário e atende aos requisitos qualitativos para recarga adotados neste trabalho. O custo de operação de um sistema de produção de água de reúso e recarga de aquíferos foi estimado em US$ 1,41/m³, valor superior à tarifa de água potável comercializada para residências na RMSP, atualmente US$ 0,75/m³. Concluiu-se que há potencial para adoção da tecnologia de recarga de aquíferos com água de reúso na RMSP, visto que há tecnologia disponível para produzir água de reúso na qualidade requerida. Ainda assim, é necessária a avaliação da hidrogeologia local antes de praticar a recarga. Em relação ao custo, o valor da tarifa de água potável vigente é expressivamente menor quando comparado ao valor caso a tecnologia proposta nesse trabalho fosse implantada. Entretanto, deve-se avaliar a importância da adoção de alternativas para disponibilização de água para a população. Ou seja, mesmo que em primeira vista seja mais onerosa, esta técnica é uma oportunidade para obtenção de água para diversos usos em situações de extrema seca, quando o valor da água passa a ser inestimável. / In the São Paulo metropolitan region, where water availability was classified as \"critical\", during the years of 2014 and 2015 there was a period of drought that led to the \"water crisis\", aggravating the situation of the water sources that supply the region. Studies on climate change demonstrate not be an isolated phenomenon and, given this, the adoption of technologies for reuse of water is essential to increase the water availability in areas facing drought situations, like SPMR. The aquifer recharge with treated wastewater to water reuse is a technics that, if properly implemented, can bring benefits as increasing the volume of groundwater available to the population. For the study of the technology, the reference plants were Shafdan (Israel), Atlantis (South Africa), Sabadell (Spain), Adelaide (Australia), survey the treatment processes, recharge methods and qualitative characteristics of effluents to aquifer recharge. The legislation of the United States and Spain was consulted and, based on these references, the following aquifer recharge effluent quality requirements were adopted: suspended solids (35 mg/L), organic solved carbon (125,0 mg/L), BOD5,20 (25,0 mg/L), nitrate (25,0 mg/L) e Escherichia coli (1000 UFC/100 mL). From the case studies and legislation, it was defined that the minimum treatment requirement for recharge is the tertiary treatment for nitrogen removal. The replicability of this technics in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo was survey through comparisons between the defined requirements and the characteristics of the effluent and the reuse water produced in the RMSP in four scenarios: applicable legislation to treated effluents discharge, effluent characteristics at secondary level treated, reuse water produced in the SPMR for urban uses and characteristics of the reuse water produced for industrial use in Aquapolo. It was verified that currently only the reuse water produced in Aquapolo is subjected to tertiary treatment and meets the qualitative requirements for recharge adopted in this study. The operating cost of a reuse and aquifer recharge water production system was estimated at US$ 1,41 / m³, which is higher than the drinking water tariff traded for residences in the RMSP, currently US$ 0,75 / m³. It was concluded that there is potential for the adoption of recharge water reuse technology in the RMSP, because the technology is available there to produce reuse water in the required quality. Nevertheless, it is necessary to study the local hydrogeology before the recharge. About cost, the value of the current drinking water tariff is significantly lower when compared to the value in case the technology proposed in this work was implemented. However, the importance of adopting alternatives for water availability to the population should be study. That is, even if it is more expensive at first sight, this technique is an opportunity to obtain water for various uses in situations of extreme drought, when the water value becomes inestimable.

Este trabalho foi desenvolvido com o objetivo de determinar a recarga profunda na bacia do Ribeirão da Onça utilizando modelo de balanço hídrico em zona saturada do solo. A bacia está localizada na região de afloramento do Sistema Aqüífero Guarani (SAG) no Estado de São Paulo sendo recoberta, em sua maior parte, por solo do tipo sedimento cenozóico e apresentando afloramento de basalto em pequena região próxima a seu exutório. O modelo do balanço hídrico envolveu a determinação dos valores de recarga direta, variação do armazenamento do aqüífero freático e escoamento básico. Para a obtenção destes valores foi monitorada a precipitação diária na bacia, a vazão na seção de controle do ribeirão e nível d\'água nos poços de monitoramento instalados na bacia, estes dois últimos com freqüência quinzenal. A recarga direta foi determinada pelo método da variação da superfície livre - Water Table Fluctuation (WTF). O escoamento básico foi calculado por meio de separação de hidrograma, o qual foi gerado por modelo chuva-vazão apoiado em medidas quinzenais da vazão na seção de controle. Amostras indeformadas de solo foram coletadas nas profundidades correspondentes à zona de variação do nível do aqüífero freático para a determinação do rendimento específico do solo. O rendimento específico médio para o solo da bacia, determinado por método de tensão de água no solo utilizando funil de placa porosa (Funil de Haines), foi de 12,2%. Este valor compatível com dados da literatura para o tipo de solo. Foram executados balanços hidrológicos em zona saturada no período de fevereiro de 2004 a janeiro de 2007, separados um dos 3 anos hidrológicos. A recarga direta variou de 14% a 38% e a recarga profunda variou de 0,4 % a 2,4% das respectivas precipitações no período. Os baixos valores de recarga profunda encontrados no trabalho revelam a necessidade da continuidade de estudos das estimativas de disponibilidade hídrica sustentável do Sistema Aqüífero Guarani. / Main objective of this work was the determination of the deep recharge in the Ribeirão da Onça basin through water balance in the soil saturated zone. This basin is located in the outcrop zone of the Guarani Aquifer System (GAS) in the São Paulo State - Brazil and is covered by cenozoic sedimentary soil. The water balance model involved the determination of the direct recharge, groundwater storage variation and base flow. To obtain these values, the daily precipitation in the basin, the stream flow in the outflow section of the creek and the aquifer level fluctuation in wells installed in the basin was monitored. The direct recharge was determined by the water table fluctuation method (WTF). The base flow was calculated by hydrograph separation method generated by rain-flow model supported by biweekly stream flow measurements. Undisturbed soil samples were collected with the objective of determining the effective porosity (specific yield). The effective porosity is 12.2%, compatible with values found in the literature. Water balances were executed for each one of the 3 hydrological years (February/2004 to January/2007). The direct recharge varied between 14% while 38% and the deep recharge varied between 0.4% and 2.4% of the respective precipitations in the period. The low values of deep recharge reveal the need for the continuity of the water resources studies in the Guarani Aquifer System.

A engenharia hidrológica visa quantificar os parâmetros que envolvem um balanço híbrido. Nesse domínio, a avaliação da taxa de recarga de aqüíferos subterrâneos torna-se relevante, devido ao uso indiscriminado desse recurso híbrido. Com o auxílio de um lisímetro e a aplicação de conceitos teóricos da infiltração, estimou-se a taxa de recarga potencial do Aqüífero Guarani para a região de São Carlos. O lisímetro, instalado na Estação Hidrometereológica do CRHEA, possui uma área de exposição de 3,6 m2 e profundidade de 1,50 m. Para a coleta do volume infiltrado utilizou-se um sistema de drenagem, com destino em um tanque coletor graduado. O lisímetro foi preenchido com solo da zona de afloramento do Aqüífero Guarani (solo arenoso). Houve monitoramento de umidade do solo, dentro do lisímetro e em campo aberto, nas proximidades do local de retirada do solo. Coletaram-se dados de infiltração no período de janeiro de 2002 a janeiro de 2003. A taxa de recarga direta potencial foi estimada em 55,6% da precipitação, para o período em estudo. Análises do comportamento da água no solo demonstraram que a recarga em aqüíferos subterrâneos ocorre somente em períodos de chuva (novembro a março). Para o período seco (abril a outubro) as precipitações esparsas não são suficientes para suprir a deficiência de umidade do solo. O trabalho permitiu, ainda, concluir que os métodos teóricos para estimar evapotranspiração potencial não são adequados em regiões caracterizadas por períodos secos e chuvosos. / Hydrologic Engineering quantifies the parameters involving water balance. Thus, the evaluation of aquifers recharge rates is considered a relevant matter due to the uncontrolled use of this type of water resource. The potential recharge rate of Guarani Aquifer for São Carlos area was estimated based on data measured on lysimeter and through the analysis of theoretical infiltration concepts. The lysimeter, assembled at the Hydrometereological Station of CRHEA, is 1.50 m deep and has 3.6 m2 of exposure area. A drainage was used to collect the infiltrated volume, leading it to a graduate collection tank. The lysimeter was filled with soil from the recharge zone of Guarani Aquifer (sandy soil). Soil humidity was monitored inside the lysimeter and at open field, around the area from where the soil was extracted. Infiltration data was recorded between January 2002 and January 2003. Potential direct recharge rate was calculated to 55.6% of the precipitation, for the studied period. Analyses of water behavior in the soil have shown that aquifers recharge occurs only in rainy periods (from november to march). Throughout the droughts (from april to october), sparse precipitations are not enough to compensate the humidity deficiency in the soil. It was also possible to conclude that the theoretical methods for estimation of potential evapotranspiration are not suitable for regions characterized by droughts and rainy periods.