This thesis discusses the Reconstruction period in the southern United States, including the events leading up to Reconstruction, the socioeconomic factors of Reconstruction itself, and the effect it had on both black and white societies.

This thesis discusses racial segregation during the reconstruction period.

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The key to Reconstruction for both blacks and whites was black suffrage. On one hand this vote made possible the elevation of black political leaders to positions of prominence in the reorganization of the South after the Civil War. For southern whites, on the other hand, black participation in the Reconstruction governments discredited the positive accomplishments of those regimes and led to the evolution of a systematized white rejection of the black as a positive force in southern politics. For white contemporaries and subsequent historians, the black political leader became the exemplar of all that was reprehensible about the period. Stereotyped patterns, developed to eliminate black influence, prevented any examination of the actual role played by these men in the reconstruction process. This study is partially a synthesis of recent scholarly research on specific aspects of the black political role and the careers of individual political leaders. Additional research included examination of a number of manuscript collections in the Library of Congress and the Southern Historical Collection at the University of North Carolina, state and federal government documents, and contemporary newspapers. On the basis of all these sources, this study evaluates the nature of black political leadership and its impact on the reconstruction process in all the ten states which were subject to the provisions of congressional reconstruction legislation. The topic is developed chronologically, beginning with the status of blacks at the end of the Civil War and their search for identity as citizens. Black leadership emerged early in the various rallies and black conventions of 1865 and early 1866. With the passage in March 1867 of reconstruction legislation establishing black suffrage as the basis for restoration of the former Confederate states, black leaders played a crucial role in the development of the southern Republican party and the registration of black voters. Black influence reached its apex in the constitutional conventions and the subsequent ratification elections of 1868-1869. Blacks were elected to posts in the new state governments in varying numbers, but with increasing political sophistication began to demand a larger voice in Republican party councils and a larger share of public offices. Their resulting prominence fueled a white determination to eliminate the Republican governments which had allowed elevation of black politicians. This study of state political leadership is not a history of the black in the Republican party, nor is it a history of the black masses in Reconstruction. It does examine the role of black leaders and seeks to determine the nature and degree of their influence. The development of black leadership was one facet of building a southern Republican party, and in the tenuous coalition which made up that party the black inevitably became the weakest link because he was the most vulnerable. This study challenges a number of stereotypes. Southern Reconstruction was not a period of "black rule," as both historians hostile to the black leaders and those sympathetic to them have intimated. Nor was the black politician a passive tool to be manipulated at the will of whites. Strong disagreements among black leaders show the weakness of the traditional monolithic picture of black political action. Black leaders had considerable influence in some states and practically none in others. Total failure of black political leadership would have been welcomed by southern whites, but its successes were intolerable. This study traces the development of a leadership whose successes led to its destruction.

In the decade following the Civil War the Texas political scene was dominated by revisionist activity with regard to the state's constitution. In that period the organic law of the state was altered three times, twice because of the exigencies of National Reconstruction and a third time to satisfy the retrenchment impulses partially stimulated by the Reconstruction experiment. None of the three constitutions written during this ten year period can be properly understood in isolation from the other two, nor can any of them be correctly interpreted separate from the serious post-war political, social, and economic issues faced by the entire nation. Hence, a uniform study of the three constitutions in their local context and their relations to national problems of the period provides a field of significant research and evaluation. It is the purpose of this study to analyze the constitutional changes of the Reconstruction era in Texas in their historical perspective, giving special attention to both the internal political structures and the socio-economic considerations dominant during that period.

Σκοπός της παρούσας εργασίας είναι η ανάλυση της οικονομικής σκέψης και της οικονομικής πολιτικής στην Ελλάδα κατά την πρώτη μεταπολεμική περίοδο 1945-1953 η οποία χαρακτηρίζεται ως περίοδος ανασυγκρότησης. Επιχειρείται μια εκτενής ανάλυση όσον αφορά τα αίτια που οδήγησαν τη χώρα στην οικονομική κυρίως, αλλά και στην κοινωνική και πολιτική της κατάρρευση μετά τη λήξη του Β’ Παγκοσμίου Πολέμου, το οικονομικό χάος που άφησε πίσω του το κατοχικό καθεστώς μετά την αποχώρησή του καθώς και όλες τις προσπάθειες που κατέβαλλε το ελληνικό έθνος προκειμένου να μπει σε τροχιά ανάπτυξης και να οδηγηθεί σε μια νέα εποχή. / The purpose of this work is the analysis of the economic thought and the economic policies that had been implemented in Greece during the first postwar period 1945-1953 which is characterized as the period of reconstruction. It is attempted a detailed analysis as far as the reasons that leaded the country in the economic collapse mainly and secondly in the social and political disaster after the end of the Second World War is concerned, the economic disorder that had left behind the occupational regime after its departure as well as all the attempts that the greek nation tried in order to be leaded in the development and to a new economic era.

Abstract In my study of architecture, I have surveyed the interior of the apartment from the perspective of colouration, in Finland from 1948 to 1955. My study comprised traditionally considered high-cultured architecture — legitimate architecture — and architecture representing the everyday, which does not have the status of legitimate architecture. My research into this subject adopted a material based approach, with qualitative research methods and applied with a theory-guided content analysis. The periodicals Arkkitehti and Kaunis Koti formed the central content of my study, representing legitimate and popular architecture from the post-war reconstruction period. On the basis of this material, I compiled a depiction of the colouration of the home during the postwar reconstruction period. In addition, I studied the use of colours in legitimate and popular architecture during that period. There has been no previous systematic depiction of the interiors of the home in Finland. The presupposition of my study was that during the post-war reconstruction period, the colour preferences of architects and the general public neared. During the post-war reconstruction period, the attention of most architects was directed towards the living conditions and needs of the general public. The primary focus of architects was in housing. This was due to the large number of homeless people requiring housing after the war. From the basis of functionalism, the discourse on the social content of architecture created the foundation for building planning during the post-war reconstruction period. In the material examined in this study, colour was identified with happiness. Nature connected the Finnish people. Even in the urban setting, the experience of nature was considered important. The multihued greenery of the window shelf present in almost every living room was one display of "the living spirit" of nature brought into the urban apartment. During the post-war reconstruction period, colouration of interiors was not homogenous. The composition of the colouration, and the ways in which colour were used, changed according to the room type. The over-arching concept in the colouration of the rooms was that of a purposeful aesthetic. The changes were connected with the development phase of the room type, its contents, as well as the importance of the space in comparison to the entirety of spaces in the apartment. In addition to the colouration change between room types, some of the apartment furnishings and their colouration changed noticeably during the post-war reconstruction period. The importance of good taste was also emphasised in different ways in different room types. In the colouration of older, established room types issues of good taste were often raised, and the interior was constructed on the basis of critique of previous interior design colourations. In connection with newer room types, such as the kitchen and the children's room, a purposeful aesthetic was at the forefront and good taste was hardly talked about, since colouration was not given as a value in relation to what had come before. Dissymmetry of colouration was common for all home interiors. The dissymmetry was derived from the modernity principle of embracing the new and forbidding the traditional. Personal observations in the use of associative and dissociative names for colours, displays Bourdieu's conception of good taste, represented in the formation of legitimate taste and popular taste. However, the criticism of Shusterman displays well, that this is a definition derived from high-culture, which is already value-ridden. The romantic period during the post-war reconstruction period, the content of which is understandable also from a popular viewpoint, showed clearly in the works of the architects. For many architects, the period remained short. From the perspective of Bourdieu, it can be thought that legitimate taste had for a moment neared popular taste. The "blue flower of romantic thought" did not blossom for long and the taste representing legitimate, rational thought regained its position. According to my supposition, the taste of popular and high-culture had nonetheless, momentarily neared. / Tiivistelmä Arkkitehtuurin alaan kuuluvassa tutkimuksessani, tarkastelen asunnon sisustusta värityksen näkökulmasta Suomessa vuosina 1948—1955. Tarkastelussani rinnakkain ovat perinteisesti korkeakulttuurina pidetty rakennustaide, legitiimi arkkitehtuuri, ja arjen käytäntöjä edustava arkkitehtuuri, jolla ei ole legitiimin arkkitehtuurin statusta. Tarkastelen tutkimusaihettani aineistolähtöisesti laadullisen tutkimuksen keinoin teoriasidonnaisen sisällönanalyysin avulla. Arkkitehti-lehti ja Kaunis koti -lehti muodostavat tutkimukseni keskeisen aineiston jälleenrakennuskauden legitiimin ja populaarin arkkitehtuurin ilmentäjinä. Tutkimuksessani kokoan aineistoon perustuvan kuvauksen jälleenrakennuskauden kodin värityksestä sekä tutkin tuon ajan legitiimin ja populaarin arkkitehtuurin värinkäyttöä. Kodin tilojen värityksestä ei ole aiemmin laadittu systemaattista kuvausta Suomessa. Tutkimukseni esioletuksena oli, että jälleenrakennuskaudella arkkitehtien ja suuren yleisön kodin värinkäyttöön liittyvät mieltymykset olivat lähellä toisiaan. Jälleenrakennuskaudella arkkitehtikunnan huomio oli kohdentunut suuren yleisön elinoloihin ja tarpeisiin. Arkkitehtikunnan suunnittelutehtävän painopiste oli asuntotuotannossa, sillä suuri määrä sodan jälkeen kodittomiksi jääneitä oli asutettava. Funktionalismin pohjalta käyty keskustelu arkkitehtuurin sosiaalisesta sisällöstä loi pohjaa jälleenrakennuskauden asuntosuunnittelulle. Aineistossani väri vertautui iloisuuteen. Luonto yhdisti suomalaisia. Kaupunkiympäristössäkin luontokokemusta pidettiin tärkeänä. Kodin sisustuksessa lähes poikkeuksetta esiintynyt olohuoneen kukkaikkuna oli yksi osoitus kaupunkiasuntoon tuodusta luonnon "elävästä hengestä". Jälleenrakennuskauden kodin sisustuksen väritys oli epäyhtenäinen. Värityksen sisällöt ja tavat käyttää väriä vaihtelivat huonetyypeittäin. Yhdistävänä yläkäsitteenä huonetilojen värityksessä oli tarkoituksenmukaisuuden estetiikka. Vaihtelut liittyivät huonetyypin kehitysvaiheeseen ja sisältöihin sekä tilalle annettuun painoarvoon asunnon huonetilojen kokonaisuudessa. Huonetyypin värityksen keskinäisen vaihtelun lisäksi osa kodin tilojen sisustuksista ja niiden värityksistä muuttui selvästi jälleenrakennuskauden kuluessa. Myös hyvän maun merkitystä korostettiin eri tavoin eri huonetyypeissä. Vanhempien, jo vakiintuneiden huonetyyppien sisustuksen värityksessä hyvä maku otettiin usein esiin ja hyvän maun mukainen sisutus rakentui aiempien sisustustyylien värityksen kritiikin kautta. Uudempien huonetyyppien, kuten keittiön ja lastenhuoneen, yhteydessä tarkoituksenmukaisuuden estetiikka oli etusijalla eikä hyvästä mausta puhuttu juuri lainkaan, sillä väritystä ei arvotettu suhteessa aiempaan. Värityksen epäsymmetrisyys oli yhteistä kaikille tarkastelemilleni kodin tilojen värityksille. Epäsymmetria ilmensi moderniteettiin sisältyvää ajatusta uudesta ja tradition kieltämisestä. Havaintoni assosiatiivisten ja ei-assosiatiivisten värinnimitysten käytöstä havainnollistaa Bourdieun ajatusta hyvää makua edustavan legitiimin maun ja populaarin maun muodostumisesta. Shustermanin kritiikki tuo kuitenkin hyvin esiin korkeakulttuurin piiristä lähtevän määritelmän, joka jo lähtökohtaisesti on arvovarautunut. Jälleenrakennuskauden romanttinen ajanjakso, jonka sisällöt olivat ymmärrettäviä myös populaarin näkökulmasta, näkyi selvästi arkkitehtien tuotannossa. Jakso jäi monen arkkitehdin kohdalla lyhytaikaiseksi. Bourdieu'n näkökulmasta voi ajatella, että legitiimi maku oli hetkellisesti lähentynyt populaaria makua. Jälkikäteen katsottuna arkkitehdit ovat tulkinneet maun rämettyneen väliaikaisesti. "Romantiikan sininen kukka" ei kovin pitkään ehtinyt kukkia, ja legitiimiä rationaalia linjaa edustanut maku valtasi asemansa takaisin. Esioletukseni mukaisesti populaarin ja korkeakulttuurin maku olivat silti hetkellisesti lähentyneet toisiaan.