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The effectiveness of an adventure-based marriage enrichment program in increasing marital intimacy was studied. Thirty seven married couples from a relatively conservative Protestant religion composed the sample. The sample was composed of volunteer participants ranging in age from 21-47. The participants were randomly assigned to two treatment groups and a control group. The Waring Intimacy Questionnaire, a participants' Self-Rating of Intimacy Scale, a participants' Intimacy Change Scale, and an open-ended questionnaire were used to collect data. Analysis of Covariance was use to determine differences in post-test scores using the pre-test as the covariate. The findings showed statistical significance for group post-test scores on the WIQ Total Intimacy Scores, E (2,70)= 3.96, p < .05. Significance was shown for group post-test scores on the WIQ cohesiveness subscale, F (2,70) = 8.71, p < .001. / Ph. D.

The microbial source tracking (MST) methods of antibiotic resistance analysis (ARA) and fluorometry (to detect optical brighteners in detergents) were used in the summers of 2004 and 2005 to determine the origins of fecal pollution at beaches with a past history of, or the potential for, high enterococci counts and posted advisories. At Hilton and Anderson beaches, ARA and fluorometry in the summer of 2004 detected substantial human-origin pollution in locations producing consistently high counts of Enterococcus spp. Investigations by municipal officials led to the fluorometric detection and subsequent repair of sewage infrastructure problems at both beaches. The success of these mitigation efforts was confirmed during the summer of 2005 using ARA and fluorometry, with the results cross-validated by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Results at other beaches indicated that birds and/or wildlife were largely responsible for elevated enterococci levels during 2004 and 2005. The application of fluorometry proved difficult in opens waters due to high levels of dilution, but showed potential for use in storm drains. An additional study developed and tested a new library-based MST approach based on the pattern of DNA band lengths produced by the amplification of the 16S-23S rDNA intergenic spacer region, and subsequent digestion using the restriction endonuclease MboI. Initial results from small known-source libraries yielded high average rates of correct classification (ARCC). However, an increase in the library size was accompanied by a reduction in the ARCC of the library and the method was deemed unsuccessful, and unsuitable for field application. A final study focused on the potential for classification bias with disproportionate source category sizes using discriminant analysis (DA), logistic regression (LR), and k-nearest neighbor (K-NN) statistical classification algorithms. Findings indicated that DA was the most robust algorithm for use with source category imbalance when measuring both correct and incorrect classification rates. Conversely k-NN was identified as the most sensitive algorithm to imbalances with the greatest levels of distortion obtained from the highest k values. Conclusions of this project include: 1) application of a validation set, as well as a minimum detectable percentage to known-source libraries aids in accurately assessing the classification power of the library and reducing the false positive identification of contributing fecal sources; 2) the validation of MST results using multiple methods is recommended for field applications; 3) fluorometry displayed potential for detecting optical brighteners as indicators of sewage leaks in storm drains; 4) the digestion of the 16S-23S rDNA intergenic spacer region of Enterococcus spp. using MboI does not provided suitable discriminatory power for use as an MST method; and 5) DA was the least, and k-NN the most, sensitive algorithm to imbalances in the size of source categories in a known-source library. / Ph. D.

Few wildlife-associated recreation models have examined the contributions of wildlife to recreation experiences. In this study, a mail questionnaire was used to examine the wildlife experiences enjoyed by hunters, birders, environmentalists, wildlife professionals, and forestry professionals. In addition, the study also compared the surveyed groups' socioeconomic characteristics, recreation activities, and organizational affiliations, as well as their perceptions concerning approaches to wildlife management, habitat issues, and the social values attributed to wildlife. While responses often differed according to populations, the surveyed groups enjoyed many of the same wildlife watching experiences and, if they hunted, many of the same hunting experiences. The subjects' outdoor recreation activities and organizational affiliations suggested that the populations' interests in wildlife varied according to primary/secondary- and consumptive/nonconsumptive-orientation. Groups sometimes viewed the social values attributed to wildlife differently, but ecological value of wildlife and the value of wildlife to the enjoyment of future generations were important to all groups surveyed. The social values important to subjects personally sometimes differed from the values they believed justified tax expenditures. Generally, both professional groups agreed with use of five wildlife management approaches, but viewed forest habitat issues differently. The user groups were divided about the use of hunting and timber harvesting to help manage some wildlife species and about the adequacy of forest lands in the Southeast U.S. to meet the needs of some species. The professional groups had similar socioeconomic backgrounds. User groups varied according to age, sex, community type, education, and occupation; however, the user groups had similar household incomes. / Master of Science

The purpose of this study was to field test a portion of the recreation quality theory: a conceptual framework which seeks to provide insight into the behavior of outdoor recreationists. Specifically, the inverse relationship of two variables which may affect the quality of outdoor recreation was examined. These were the force of motivation and the psychological distance to the user's destination in a recreation environment. Time spent hiking to the destination was considered a function of force, and physical distance was considered a function of the psychological distance to the destination. It was hypothesized that people who were able to accurately determine the distance remaining to the destination, as they were hiking along the trail, would arrive sooner than those who could not accurately determine the distance remaining to the destination. A map was used to provide users with information about· distances. The hiking times for 109 visitor groups at the Cascades Nature Trail in the Jefferson National Forest, Virginia were unobtrusively recorded between September 26 and November 7, 1976. Differences between the hiking times of groups were analyzed by means of Wilcoxon's Rank Sum Test, the Ansari-Bradley Dispersion Test, and the Moses Dispersion Test. The effects of changing environmental conditions were assessed by means of the Kruskal-Wallis Test for Multiple Comparisons, as well as by Wilcoxon's Rank Sum Test. This study provided evidence that supports the hypothesis proposed in the recreation quality theory, that an inverse relationship exists between the force of motivation and the psychological distance to a goal in a forested recreation environment. / Master of Science

Graduates of the Wilderness Education Association (W.E.A.) were surveyed by mail to investigate the effects of their certification on safety, ecological impact, and curriculum standardization of their subsequent leadership activities. Self-reports showed a slight, but not statistically significant, decrease in the number of post- W.E.A. course evacuations and rescues. Graduates reported a moderate W.E.A. influence on their accident records, and knowledge of W.E.A. standard safety practices was low. W.E.A.'s reported influence on the ecological impact of current outdoor leadership activities was stronger than its influence on safety, but graduates revealed only a moderate level of knowledge about ethical use practices. Graduates reported implementing a mean of 4.54 out of 16 W.E.A. curriculum areas into current programs. Thirty-three and one-half percent of the graduates reported not implementing any curriculum areas into current programs. W.E.A. graduates indicated that the course had the greatest influence on the implementation of their outdoor education curriculum areas which had previously not been highly standardized. Implications for certification of outdoor leaders are discussed. / Master of Science

Most of the hunting opportunities in Virginia are on private land, and their continued existence is threatened by shrinking wildlife habitat and increasingly restricted public access to remaining wildlife habitat. The availability of land for hunting and reasons landowners restrict access to their land were investigated in four counties in piedmont Virginia. Landowners were surveyed with a mailed questionnaire. The typical respondent was a 55 year old male with a high school education, who was raised in the country, and did some farming and hunting. While about half the respondents posted their land, 90 percent allowed some hunting. Bad experiences with hunters were common, and usually involved trespassing or property damage. Attitudes toward hunters and hunting were generally favorable, but road hunting and non-local hunters met with disapproval. Respondents rated existence and aesthetic values of wildlife much higher than hunting and food values. A regression model of the determinants of access control had low predictive power. The study did find that attitudes towards hunter and road hunting were the best predictors of access control for most respondents, while attitude toward hunting was the best predictor for those who completely prohibited hunting. Landowners’ distrust of non-local hunters and widespread limitation of access to local residents emphasize the need to increase public hunting opportunities near urban areas through incentives to landowners. Altering landowners’ attitudes toward hunters, not toward hunting, seems to be the best way to increase access in general. A more favorable image of hunters can be achieved by improving hunter behavior through effective control of road hunting and promoting hunting ethics. Instilling an ethic of sportsmanship in all hunters is a difficult challenge, but it is the only major solution to landowner-hunter conflicts. / Master of Science

Nonprofit, volunteer organizations assist government agencies in managing the recreational resources of public lands in many parts of the Eastern United States. With a depressed economy, the role these organizations take can be particularly important in the continuing provision of quality outdoor recreation experiences. This study examines the contributions of five nonprofit groups in the East, the Appalachian Mountain Club, Green Mountain Club, Adirondack Mountain Club, Potomac Appalachian Trail Club, and the Appalachian Trail Conference, and their cooperative relationships with, respectively, the White Mountain National Forest, Green Mountain National Forest, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Shenandoah National Park, and the Appalachian Trail Project Office (National Park Service). Interviews with key members of the agencies and the nonprofit groups provided most of the information on club activities and the advantages, problems, and constraints of cooperative relationships from the point of view of each party. Legislation and policy affecting nonprofit involvement on public lands is discussed as well as the prospects of future involvement of these groups. / Master of Science

The piping plover (Charadrius melodus) is an imperiled migratory shorebird that nests on mainland and barrier island beaches on the Atlantic coast of North America. Its population decline was attributed to habitat loss, predation, coastal development, and disturbance. Hurricane Sandy reached the Northeast United States in October, 2012. The storm breached and overwashed two barrier islands of New York that support breeding piping plovers, Fire Island and Westhampton Island. In response to geomorphic island changes, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers stabilized the islands by filling breaches, building dunes, and nourishing beaches. In accordance with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Endangered Species Act, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers constructed piping plover nesting habitat to mitigate the loss of habitat from engineering. The objectives of this study were to assess habitat selection and quantify suitable habitat before and after Hurricane Sandy and to investigate survival and migration of fledgling piping plovers within their first year. We studied piping plover nest-site selection, habitat, and abundance before (2010) and after (2015) Hurricane Sandy and engineered response. Before the storm, piping plovers selected nest sites (n=62) farther from the ocean (x̄ least-cost distance = 82.8 m) and bay (x̄ Euclidean distance = 697.7 m; x̄ least-cost distance = 24,160.6 m) than would be expected if they were selecting nest sites at random. Following the storm, piping plovers selected nest sites (n=45) that were close to, and had unobstructed walking access to, the ocean (x̄ least-cost distance = 123.4 m) and newly-created bayside foraging habitats (x̄ Euclidean distance = 468.0 m; x̄ least-cost distance = 728.9 m). Areas overwashed by the hurricane contained the most suitable piping plover habitat across all new habitat types. Piping plover abundance increased 93% by 2018 from pre-Hurricane Sandy abundances, with most pairs nesting in new habitats. However, only 58% of suitable piping plover habitat was protected from recreational use and only 4% of piping plovers used unprotected habitats for nesting during 2015–2017. We assessed post-fledging survival with radio telemetry and mark-recapture methods. We banded and monitored 292 fledged chicks from 2013–2018. We affixed nanotags to 43 pre-fledged chicks and tracked them to document mortality on their natal grounds. We used a multi-state open robust design model to estimate post-fledging survival within the first year and migration and return probabilities. Daily survival rate as estimated with nanotags was the same as estimated with mark-recapture methods (0.997). Post-fledging survival did not vary in the six years following the storm, nor did it vary across stages within an individual's first year (0.36; 95% CI = 0.31–0.42). Fledgling migration occurred between July 1 and September 22 and reached its peak between August 15–23 (Ψ = 0.97, 95% CI: 0.92–0.98). Individuals with earlier fledge dates migrated earlier (β = ˗1.51, 95% CI: ˗1.11–˗1.91). Second-year plovers returned to the breeding grounds between February 20 and May 8, with a peak occurring in late April and early May (Ψ = 0.55, 95% CI: 0.41–0.70). Given that newly-created storm and engineered habitats benefitted nesting and brooding plovers, ensuring protection of these and other suitable habitats would likely safeguard fledglings that persist on Fire Island for more than a month before departure. / Master of Science / The federally threatened piping plover (Charadrius melodus) is a migratory shorebird that breeds on sandy beaches along the Atlantic coast of North America. Coastal development, recreational use, and habitat loss are major factors that contributed to its listing under the Endangered Species Act in 1986. Hurricane Sandy reached the Northeast United States in October, 2012. The storm breached and overwashed Fire Island and Westhampton Island, prompting the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to stabilize the islands by filling breaches, building dunes, and nourishing beaches. Because the islands support a breeding population of piping plovers, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers also constructed piping plover habitat to mitigate the loss of habitat due to engineering. The objectives of this study were to assess habitat selection of plovers before and after Hurricane Sandy and to investigate survival and migration of fledgling piping plovers within their first year. We studied piping plover nest-site selection, suitable habitat, and abundance before (2010) and after (2015) Hurricane Sandy and engineered response. Before the storm, piping plovers selected nest sites farther from the ocean and bay than would be expected if they were selecting nest sites at random. Following the storm, piping plovers selected nest sites that were close to, and had unobstructed walking access to, the ocean and newly-created bayside foraging habitats. Areas overwashed by the hurricane contained the most suitable piping plover habitat across all new habitat types. Piping plover abundance increased 93% by 2018 from pre-Hurricane Sandy abundances, with most pairs nesting in new habitats. However, only 58% of suitable piping plover habitat was protected from recreational use and few piping plovers used unprotected habitats for nesting. From 2013–2019, we monitored post-fledging piping plovers through their first year. We estimated post-fledging survival and estimated fall and spring migration timing. Post-fledging survival was constant across their first year of life. Fledgling migration occurred between July 1 and September 22 and reached its peak between August 15–23. Individuals with earlier fledge dates migrated earlier. Plovers returned to the breeding grounds between February 20 and May 8 of their second year, with a peak occurring in late April and early May. Given that post-Hurricane Sandy habitats were suitable for plover nests and broods, ensuring protection of suitable habitats would also benefit fledglings that persist on Fire Island for more than a month before departure.

This study was undertaken to determine whether or not the secondary schools of Texas have recreational programs that measure up to accepted standard objectives. The activities within the recreation curriculum were measured to determine the value of each.