The disposal of waste into landfill sites is currently the most commonly employed method of dealing with waste in South Africa as well as internationally. However the global trend towards operating waste management systems in a more sustainable way has lead to the need to reverse this situation towards a waste management system that predominantly makes use of waste minimization schemes to deal with waste and relies minimally on waste disposal. The focus of this research was to determine which waste minimization schemes would be most effective in the Municipal Solid Waste Management Systems (MSWMS) of Cape Town and Johannesburg with regard to achieving this reversal in an economically sustainable manner. The method used to achieve this objective was threefold, firstly requiring the development of a waste flow diagram for each respective city, followed by the development of a waste stream model based on the specific flow diagram and finally the extension of this material model into an economic model. The models were developed in Microsoft Excel and work on the premise that each particular stream (separate collected waste, transfer station waste, etc) of the MSWMS concerned has a particular associated cost (defined as cost per ton of waste processed). The model operates on the principle that under several pre-determined constraints the Excel Solver function calculates the optimal flow rates of the various waste streams which give the minimum overall MSWMS cost for future years. The developed model has shown that the recovery of waste reduces the overall MSWMS costs until a threshold value (at which point under the proposed system all economically recoverable waste has been exhausted). Different waste minimization schemes were found to be appropriate for each respective city. However, the use of Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs) to recover recyclables has been shown to be a viable waste recovery scheme for both Cape Town and Johannesburg. Cape Town is in the process of implementing the development of MRFs in conjunction with existing transfer stations, while it is envisaged that MRFs will be developed on all of Johannesburg's Municipal landfill sites in the future. Significant changes to the MSWMS of both cities are required for their respective landfilling waste streams to be substantially reduced in accordance with the Polokwane Declaration. Decreasing the landfilled waste stream is not only required by legislation, but the developed model has shown that the recovery of waste also reduces the overall MSWMS costs. / Thesis (M.Sc.Eng.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2006.

by Leung Chi Kam Joseph. / Thesis (M.Ph.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1985 / Bibliography: leaves 178-198

Thesis--University of Michigan.

INTRODUCTION All waste generated at health care facilities in the past was regarded as hazardous and needed to be incinerated first before it was disposed. The purpose of this study was to investigate health care waste (HCW) management practices employed in public health clinics in the iLembe District, with a view of developing a HCW management intervention strategy. METHODOLOGY The study design was observational, descriptive, and cross-sectional. Data was collected using a structured individual questionnaire, which was administered to key informants from 31 rural and urban government fixed public clinics in the iLembe District Municipality. RESULT Thirty public clinics in iLembe district participated in the study. A total of 210 kg/day (0.06 kg/patient/day) of HCW was estimated to be generated in public clinics, 69% was health care general waste (HCGW) and 31 % was health care risk waste (HCRW). The district's generation rate was 0.04 kg/patient/day and 0.018 kg/patient/day, for HCGW and HCRW, respectively. The study found that HCW was improperly managed in the district. DISCUSSION The findings are different when compared to World Health Organisation norms and this was attributed to improper segregation of waste categories other than sharp waste, which was given special treatment. Factors such as the number of patients, size of the clinic, types of health care services rendered, and socio-economics status of the patient played a pivotal role in the waste volume generated. It is evident that no proper HCW management plan was being implemented in the district public clinics. CONCLUSION The management of health care risk waste is of great concern. There is a need for development of a health care waste management intervention strategy that must be implemented consistently and universally in the district. RECOMMENDATIONS It is recommended that a proper health care waste management intervention strategy be developed and implemented in the whole district. This strategy must incorporate training programmes and a waste management plan. / Thesis (MPH)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2007.

Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife (KZN Wildlife) needed to develop a solid waste management policy and strategy for their protected areas, as well as specific solid waste management plans for existing and new developments within these areas. These had to be in keeping with the principles of sustainable development, protected area conservation objectives, best practice and legislative requirements. A pilot study was thus undertaken at two large KwaZulu-Natal protected area visitor facilities, Hilltop Rest Camp in Hluhluwe Game Reserve and Sodwana Bay Rest Camp, to investigate the types and amounts of solid waste generated . In addition, the solid waste disposal methods employed in 1984 and 2000, the disposal options available and the constraints and impacts of solid waste disposal throughout the protected area system were investigated. A comparison was made with solid waste production and management at Skukuza Rest Camp in the Kruger National Park as well as with various international waste sources. The information was presented in the form of histograms for comparison and tree cluster analysis was used as a heuristic tool to discuss the results. Hilltop and Sodwana Bay Rest Camps produced similar waste although its composition varied according to the specific source of production within the visitor facility . The waste produced at KZN Wildlife protected area visitor facilities had a similar composition to that produced at Skukuza Rest Camp. Audits of waste management practices at Hilltop, Sodwana Bay and Skukuza indicated that KZN Wildlife was not adequately managing the solid waste at their two protected area visitorfacilities. However, solid waste was being responsibly disposed of at Skukuza Rest Camp. The type of waste produced at protected area visitor facilities in a number of other African countries and Australia, was similar in composition to that produced in South African protected areas; all were similar to that produced in developed, westernised countries. A survey in 1984 of waste disposal methods in 32 KZN Wildlife protected areas, indicated that disposal to municipal landfill was only practised by protected areas less than 5 000 ha in size and less than 30 km from a municipallandfill. The current (2000) survey showed that disposal directly to landfill without reduction within protected areas had been discontinued, and that there was an increased proportion of waste disposal to municipal landfill. Such disposal was primarily limited to areas of less than 10000 ha and less than 40 km from such a landfill. The main constraints on the choice of waste disposal method were the cost of transport and limited budgets. A draft solid waste management policy and strategy were developed. The policy set out the legal requirements , ecological objectives and constraints of solid waste disposal in protected areas and also the preferred disposal options. The strategy set out the waste disposal methods available and their associated risks, likely impacts, opportunities and implications for management. The use of a simple matrix, that combined transport costs (represented by distance to a municipal landfill site); the size of the protected area (assumed to reflect the amount of solid waste generated); and the environmental risk of leachate production (as indicated by the climatic water balance), with suitable waste disposal options, was recommended. This matrix was designed to assist in the objective implementation of the draft waste management policy and in selection of an appropriate waste disposal method for each protected area. The draft policy and strategy were applied to produce a solid waste management plan for a new development in Umfolozi Game Reserve. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2001.

Municipal Solid Waste generation has become an inevitable consequence of lifestyles and daily living. However, the nature (quantity and quality) of this waste stream can vary and is largely dependent upon the manner in which waste production is managed, by both government and the public. The increasing practices of littering, dumping and burning of solid waste by households (and industries though not extensively dealt with in this study) in South Africa has led to the finding that municipal solid waste is being irresponsibly managed. In this regard, it becomes necessary to investigate the attitudes and behaviour of individuals and households toward solid waste practices, which further include mitigating measures such as reduction, reuse and recycling for the generation of solid waste. The role of the South African government in providing a refuse removal and safe disposal service to all citizens is suggestive of the responsible role of government to ensure that solid waste is being effectively managed by all sectors of society. The aims of this study in light of the above were to review the municipal solid waste policies and strategies of local government authorities in South Africa, highlighting the shortcomings and discrepancies that exist between legislative policies and actual management practices; which is also reflective of the attitudes and approaches to solid waste management by households. This was achieved by focusing on the case study of the Msunduzi Municipality and included investigations into socio-economic and cultural influences on solid waste disposal practices. The objectives of the study were achieved by means of a questionnaire survey that elicited specific responses from 650 sampled households in five suburbs of differing socio-economic status. A further analysis to identify the nature of household municipal solid waste for landfilling from three suburbs of differing socio-economic status was conducted by categorizing 25 tons of garbage at the New England Road Landfill Site, leading to inferences about consumer purchasing power and disposal practices. Further, key personnel in the Msunduzi Municipality’s waste management division were interviewed to ascertain the solid waste challenges faced at local municipal and national levels of government. The study revealed several significant findings of which the most important is that the implementation of South Africa’s national municipal solid waste legislation policies and strategies are inconsistent with local government practices and procedures; thus compromising equity, efficiency, effectiveness and the sustainability of municipal solid waste disposal. Factors contributing to this are shown to be inadequate management and service delivery. The research has shown that monitoring and control systems which purported to ensure environmental sustainability are lacking and inadequately address issues where the implementation of municipal solid waste regulations are in contravention with national solid waste policies. The outcomes of the questionnaire survey and the assessment of household municipal solid waste for landfilling reveal that socio-economic status and culture do in fact influence the nature of solid waste and the disposal methods used by residents. The receptiveness of households towards adopting suggested municipal solid waste disposal practices was also investigated. The non-compliance of residents with municipal solid waste legislation and policies points towards a lack of monitoring and control measures, thereby not providing for a sustained and adequate service delivery which is environmentally sound. The research further suggests that all sectors of the South African public and the government are inadequately informed in terms of aspects of municipal solid waste. This has led the researcher to recommend that further education and awareness campaigns and its role in environmental sustainability are needed so that a sharing of responsibility between government and the public can be effected to aid municipal solid waste management in the country. It is argued that the insight into the roles of socio-economic status and cultural influences over solid waste practices provide a platform from which municipal authorities can work to specifically address the problems associated with municipal solid waste at a community level. It is the task of the national government to ensure that South Africa’s municipal solid waste is being responsibly managed at the local municipal levels so that the health and safety of the environment and its citizens are suitably addressed, hence the focusing on solid waste legislation and national policies (which have been recognized internationally as being environmentally sound and sustainable) must be translated in terms that local municipalities can adopt, assuming that they have been sufficiently empowered in terms of both knowledge and adequate budgeting. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

No description available.

There is no abstract available for this thesis. / Department of Urban Planning

Thesis (M. Phil.)--University of Hong Kong, 1992.

The potential for mobilization of SO4 and Cl from coal stockpiles and coal processing waste and refuse (waste rock) disposal areas to the receiving streams and groundwater is an environmental concern and proper management practices are necessary to minimize the impact of these discharges. In an effort to characterize the long-term environmental impact of weathering in from both a typical coal stockpile and coal waste disposal areas a series of laboratory- scale and field-scale kinetic tests were performed with the ultimate goal of improving both coal and coal waste management at coal mines in a manner that minimizes the discharge of sulfate (SO4) and chloride (Cl). Laboratory experiments demonstrated that kinetic testing is a productive method for understanding the chemistry of surface water discharges from coal stock piles. However, these tests proved to be problematic in simulating the weathering of coal refuse. In an effort to improve the kinetic tests, field test columns were constructed that eliminated this deficiency. Unfortunately, field-scale test columns were found to be difficult to construct and, due to extremes weather events, difficult to maintain for an adequate test period. In the course of the experiment elemental and mineralogical data were collected both before and after weathering of fresh, run-of-mine coal from the Springfield (No.5) coal seam and coal refuse samples from processing the Springfield (No. 5) and Herrin (No. 6) coal seams. Duplicate columns were constructed in 2008 to conduct kinetic testing of the fresh run-of-mine No. 5 coal collected at an active underground mine in Southeastern Illinois. These columns measured 15.4 cm (6-inch) diameter by 61 cm (2-ft.) tall and were leached in batch mode for 32 months (27 leach cycles) using locally-collected rainfall water at a rate consistent with climatic data. Similarly, triplicate columns were constructed in 2009 to conduct kinetic testing of fine and coarse coal collected at the cooperative mine. The coal refuse test columns also measured 15.4 cm (6-inch) diameter by 61 cm (2-ft.) tall and were leached in batch mode for 41 months (31 leach cycles). Coal refuse was emplaced into the columns using a measured amount of compaction and a controlled moisture content (15.3%) based on data from previous laboratory engineering tests (Proctor testing). Locally-collected rainfall water was again used for leaching at a rate consistent with climatic data. Three columns investigated the leaching of compacted coarse refuse (the control) and three columns investigated the leaching of compacted 80:20 blend of coarse and fine refuse. To verify the results of the laboratory-scale, kinetic tests on coal refuse six field-scale (208 L or 55 gal.) columns were constructed in 2011 which measured 57.2 cm (22.5-in.) diameter by 85.1 cm (33.5-in.) tall and were leached in batch mode for 18 months (17 leach cycles). Two columns were again investigated the leaching of compacted coarse refuse (the control), while two additional columns leached compacted 85:15 blend of fine and coarse refuse and two columns tested a 80:10:10 blend of coarse refuse, fine refuse, and ground limestone. These field-scale tests allowed the use of full-sized refuse particles and were subject to natural precipitation events. An improved geochemical data set was obtained by these experiments due to an extension of the laboratory kinetic tests from 12 to 32 months to better simulate a mine-site stockpile conditions. Similarly, kinetic tests on coal refuse were extended from 12 to 41 months to better simulate SO4 and Cl release from a coal refuse facility. Three coal refuse disposal options were investigated in these experiments: 1) compacted coarse refuse (the control), 2) a compacted blend of fine and coarse refuse and 3) a compacted blend of coarse refuse, fine refuse, and ground limestone. Trends observed during the course of this research in leachate chemistry, as well as, comparisons of refuse placement options provide important insights necessary for development of management practices which minimize SO4 and Cl in coal mine discharge. The observed temporal changes were largely due to the presence of carbonate and aluminum mineral buffering of pH; three stages were observed during the kinetic testing of the Springfield (No.5) coal (Stages 1 through 3). Conversely, only Stage 1 and Stage 2 were observed in leaching tests of coal refuse due to the greater amount of compaction, which reduced the hydraulic conductivity and slowed the weathering rate. The identification of these three stages is important because of the improvement in coal and coal refuse management and water quality treatment realized by an understanding of these geochemical trends. The stages observed in the coal column leachate are: Stage 1: Laboratory coal column leachate collected during the first 7 months of simulated weathering of the No.5 coal maintained a favorable pH (> 6.4) maintained by an excess in bicarbonate alkalinity which minimized discharge of SO4 and common coal mine drainage metal Fe. The concentrations of Na and Cl in the leachate were elevated in early leach cycles, but declined rapidly as water soluble salts were flushed from the coal columns, which was an indicator that a portion of the Cl was water soluble forms such as salts and dissolved Cl- ions in pore water and not bound to the organic structure. Stage 2: A transitional period (Stage 2) occurred during the next 3 months of simulated coal stockpile weathering (7 to 10 months). This stage marked the exhaustion of the carbonate mineral buffer and an acceleration of coal weathering. Stage 2 leachate was characterized by a rapid decrease in the leachate pH to 4.0 and an increase in concentration of SO4 and dissolved Fe. Both Na and Cl in the leachate continued to decline in Stage 2, but the release related to flushing rate and not pH. Stage 3: After 10 months of simulated coal stockpile weathering, the leachate pH continued to slowly decrease to values below 2.0. At the same time the SO4 concentration increased rapidly and Fe concentration increased by over a factor of ten. The decline in pH was believed to have been restricted by iron and possibly aluminum mineral buffering during Stage 3. The release of Na and Cl in the coal increased somewhat during Stage 3 presumably due to slaking of shale contain in the ROM coal and the subsequent increase in the exposure of the soluble portion of the Cl to weathering and flushing. Laboratory leach testing of the Springfield (No.5) Coal from Southeastern Illinois suggests that: (1) SO4 levels in coal stockpile discharge would be relatively low up to ≈7 months. This time period, therefore, should correspond to the operational limit of run-of-mine (ROM) coal storage for this case example; and (2) Elevated discharges Cl- and the Na+ counter ion occurs immediately and may require control by operational measures (dilution and/or periodic blow down from a closed loop water handling system) to minimize Cl. A favorable leachate pH of > 6.4 which typified Stage 1 was also maintained throughout the laboratory-scale experiments for all blended coal refuse and in two of three columns simulating coarse coal refuse. Lower pH conditions similar to Stage 2 in the coal study was observed in leachate from only one of three coarse refuse columns after ≈12 months of kinetic testing. In all laboratory column experiments, the concentrations of Na and Cl in the leachate were elevated in early leach cycles, but declined rapidly as water soluble salts were flushed from the coal refuse columns. However, in the field column experiments favorable pH conditions (> 6.4) were only maintained throughout the 18 month experiment in the two columns which received a relatively high amount or ground limestone addition (10%). Lower pH conditions similar to Stage 2 observed in the coal leachate tests were observed in leachate from two coarse refuse columns and one of two blended refuse columns after ≈12 months. Complementary laboratory and field kinetic testing of coal refuse also suggest that: 1) SO4 levels in simulated coal refuse disposal area can be minimized by systematic compaction and co-disposal of properly dewatered fine and coarse refuse, and 2) elevated Cl (and Na) discharges occur immediately, which may require operational measures such as dilution and/or periodic blow down from the mine’s closed loop system. In most cases all of these measures can be completed using existing facilities at minimal additional costs. This dissertation provides insights into the potential for long-term discharge of SO4 and Cl from coal processing facilities in the Southeastern part of the Illinois and the operational controls that should be considered to minimize these impacts. Additional studies are suggested to confirm the findings with different coal seams and mining regions in the Illinois basin. Some notable findings include: 1) An increased understanding of coal and coal refuse leachate geochemistry can be expected by extending kinetic testing from the normal short-term tests (<12 >months) to longer-term testing (32-41 months). By conducting long-term (>12 months) kinetic tests additional observations were possible regarding limitations on rate of release of Cl and SO4 by both carbonate mineral buffer (pH 6.4) and an mineral ferrihydrite buffer at pH ≈3.4, as well as, increases due to chemical and physical weathering (slaking) of the materials. An understanding of the bicarbonate buffer is necessary to design operational controls during mining and reclamation and to evaluate the impact of alkaline (i.e. limestone) additions. 2) Kinetic testing of coal refuse should simulate real-world placement of these materials in a disposal area. Current coal mining practices require both the placement and compaction of coarse or blended refuse, which is not duplicated in kinetic methods employed by previous investigators that conducted tests using relatively loose-packed materials. Kinetic testing of non-compacted coal refuse is inconsistent with mine safety regulations in the U.S. dictate that compaction will be required for the structural stability of the coal refuse facility. Therefore, this experiment improved on the conventional kinetic testing methodology and provides a more appropriate estimate of the weathering rates as they relate to the release of SO4 and Cl from these materials. However, due the low hydraulic conductivity of the compacted refuse blends the laboratory column leachate volumes were inadequate to conduct key alkalinity analyses when rainfall was applied at physically realistic rates. Larger volume field columns may, therefore, serve as a better alternative. 3) Limitations on the mobility of the powerful oxidant, ferric iron (Fe3+), created by compaction and the presence of alkaline materials that support the presence of a bicarbonate buffer are critical in controlling the release of SO4. 4) Increased compaction in the two coal refuse blends would be expected to restrict the hydraulic conductivity and, therefore, flushing rate of the refuse and, as a result, reduce the corresponding release of Cl. However, the reverse was observed which was due in part to the high release rate of the soluble portion of the Cl from fine-grained materials, which in this case was the <200 mesh>(<0.074mm) fine coal processing waste. Moderate additions (<5%) of fine-grained (< 1 cm) limestone provides both an increased stability of blended coal refuse due to its role as a drying and cementing agent. The environmental benefit of limestone addition to coal refuse blends is the reduction of SO4 release due to: 1) Lower infiltration of H2O and O2(g) as the result of improved compaction, and 2) Increase in the net neutralization potential which results in increased bicarbonate mineral buffering. However, it is recognized that due to the size of these facilities limestone additions at the rate suggested by this research would be costly.