This thesis is an examination of National Recreation Areas managed by the National Park Service, the Forest Service, and the Bureau of Land Management. It is exploratory in nature and seeks to illustrate their history, how well they are working today, and prospects for the decade of the 1990's. Included is information about the history, benefits, and trends of federal provision of outdoor recreation opportunities. Also included is a section on planning theory and conceptual frameworks--the concept of Multiple-Use, and the theory of Transactive Planning, as developed by John Friedmann. Managers of thirty-six of thirty-seven existing national recreation areas were interviewed by telephone concerning area attributes, the designation process, public support, enabling legislation, impacts of designation, and management mechanisms. A second research effort consisted of the creation of a computer database that serves as an index to the enabling legislation of all thirty-seven areas.

Recently, sustainable development has been presented as a revision to neoliberalism by emphasizing not just economic factors, but also social and environmental concerns. This revision also maintains the value of promoting negotiation with communities that stand to be affected by initiatives. Yet, given criticisms of current policy, what is the role of non-state actors such as NGOs and local communities in shaping development? This question will be addressed by discussing a current integration project in Central America and Mexico called the Plan Puebla Panama (PPP). Although based on sustainable development, the PPP is criticized on social and environmental grounds and for little public information. By applying Long's actor model to political ecology, I argue that although the development promoted by international institutions has fallen short, civil society has shaped current policy. Moreover, I assert participation and negotiation from civil society is essential in encouraging more equitable and sustainable development.

This study evaluated the success of recently revegetated roadsides in Tucson, Arizona. The primary objectives of this study were to (1) evaluate a sample of revegetated roadsides by assessing site condition and comparing existing vegetation to the original seed mix; and (2) develop recommendations for appropriate revegetation practices for use in Tucson. Density data were collected at 20 locations using belt transects to derive species information such as origin, vegetative life-form, and invasiveness. Results indicated that the study sites had greater proportions of plant material not specified in the original construction documents than specified plant material. Of the specified species, creosote bush, desert senna, and triangle-leaf bursage had the highest rates of establishment while brittlebush, globemallow, shrubby buckwheat, and fourwing saltbush provided the most vegetative cover. Several non-specified species exhibited successful establishment on many study sites, while some species rarely or never appeared in the study area despite frequent specification.

No description available.

The developing world is characterised by considerable social and economic problems. The unavailability of sufficient housing opportunities in the countries of the developing world is one of the key factors that contributes to their socio-economic malaise. The provision of shelter for the homeless of a country serves not only as an important political act, but also as an important socio-economic development tool for that country. For majority parties in governments to remain popular, housing serves as a basis for the provision of tangible delivery, which at the same time has the capacity to contribute to the countries socio-economic development. The provision of housing in many countries has been implemented with the objective of providing not only shelter, but also to encourage social and economic development for communities. The approaches taken have varied from time to time and have in many respects been implemented in an attempt to address the needs, constraints and opportunities faced by communities. In South Afica, the implementation of a housing policy that encompassed these issues, came into operation in 1994, with the onset of a democratic order. While successes have been recorded, it has been found that few projects have met their objectives. This thesis attempts to analyse the effects of the implementation of this housing policy on the communities of Ntuthukoville and Site 11, both of which are located in the town of Pietermaritzburg, Kwazulu-Natal. The study focuses on the amount of money and resources expended by these communities on the upgrading of their houses outside of the assistance provided by government. In this way an attempt is made to analyse whether or not the state's role as facilitator rather than provider has been achieved. Further, the economic spinoffs that emerge from the spending of individuals capital is assessed as a stimulus for local growth and development. The approach adopted includes an analysis of two communities within which different management styles have been used in the implementation of the housing policy. Information in the case studies has been extracted using interviews with key informants and the administration of a questionnaire on a face to face basis, on a sample population in each of the respective communities. The findings of the study reveal that the one community has spent more time and money on their houses in the form of new extensions, upgrading of existing buildings and new internal finishing as compared to the other. The primary reason centres on the manner in which the respective developments were implemented and the management style that was used in each. In the one community there was a community driven approach to development as compared to a State driven approach in the other. The study also reveals that the housing policy currently in operation, has the potential to give impetus to, community participation, social and economic development for the community, as well as the area in general. This policy also has the capacity to provide skill's enhancement, kick start local economies and it provides for the State to act as facilitator rather than provider. This capacity however is dependent on the proper implementation of the policy. The capacity of local government needs to be boosted in order for the maximum gains to be made from the provision of housing to communities. As is indicated by the study, local government lacks the skills and the resources to effectively implement the responsibility devolved upon it by national government to provide and facilitate housing. There is thus a need for change in the approach of local government to housing delivery. A fresh approach should be that of facilitating and managing effectively with communities rather than for communities. The nett effect of which is likely to be, the building of capacity, stimulating the local economy and delivering to the poorest of the poor. / Theses (M.Sc.U.R.P.)-University of Natal, 1998.

Owing to the concern about the serious factors influencing global warming and climatic change, the process of sustainable landscape construction as well as ecologically friendly developments needs to be addressed. In particular, the questions to ask is are we nearer to accepting sustainable growth advantages in South Africa , primarily the greater eThekwini Municipal Area? In this research paper an analysis of both a theoretical and practical approach to conventional understanding s relating to development practices and issues that encompass greening of cities and the notion of rooftop gardens will be assessed. In so doing it will investigate the discourse surrounding urban ecology and sustainable landscape developments and how both processes incorporate the topic of rooftop gardening, urban agriculture and people’s attitudes towards nature in the city, which regrettably from a South African perspective has very little comprehensive literature written about it. The research will give clarity and hopefully show that there is sufficient evidence to demonstrate that rooftop gardens form an intricate part of urban ecology. In addition to this that they can provide general environmental, associated aesthetic and health benefits for cities and their inhabitants. Hopefully in culmination this research study will promote a greater insight into rooftop gardens benefits for city management systems. / Thesis (M.T.R.P.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2009.

This thesis places the growth management, specifically the urban growth boundary, policies of the Greater Vancouver Regional District and the Province of British Columbia in comparative perspective. The operative problem statement for this study is that current efforts at managing urban growth in the Lower Mainland are ambitious, but that they need to be made more robust. The specific methodologies used to address this problem statement include: a detailed review of the literature on urban growth boundaries and on growth management; a review of growth management policies relevant to containing urban growth in the Lower Mainland; and a detailed examination of the urban growth boundary policies of two case studies (Thurston County, Washington and Metro Portland, Oregon). The literature review reveals that urban growth boundaries are a simple concept, yet they are potentially troublesome policy considerations. As defined in the literature, urban growth boundaries are lines on a map that demarcate urban from rural land, thus setting a limit on urban expansion. The literature generally concludes that urban growth boundaries can be an extremely effective component to broader growth management programs, given a number of policy design considerations are taken into account. A thorough examination of current growth management initiatives in the Lower Mainland reveals that the substantive content of both the Livable Region Strategic Plan (1996) and the Growth Strategies Statutes Amendments Act, 1995 is "sustainable", albeit somewhat incomplete. In placing these policies in comparative perspective with the urban growth boundary policies of the two case studies, it is generally concluded that urban growth boundaries would contribute to current efforts at managing urban growth in the Lower Mainland by containing sprawl and ensuring the contiguity of urban development. Furthermore, it is argued that Provincial legislation should be amended in a way that outlines province-wide urban containment goals, ensures better interjurisdictional coordination of policies, and establishes enforcement mechanisms that include provisions for the application of sanctions upon noncompliant jurisdictions. Finally, while the case studies revealed some important information regarding urban containment in the Lower Mainland, they also served to confirm the information presented in the literature review, thus demonstrating consistency between theoretical notions of urban containment and practical experiences with urban growth boundaries.

Against the background of a rapidly collapsing socialist empire in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, socialist China has since the late 1970s consciously endeavored to develop a "socialist market economy with Chinese characteristics." This thesis assesses the process of economic and spatial transformation in the Zhujiang (Pearl River) Delta, one of the fastest growing economic regions in China. The purposes are to identify the general pattern of economic and spatial changes, to determine the key forces responsible for such changes, and to explore the theoretical implications of these changes in the broader context of interpretation about the operating mechanism of regional development. The overall objective is to understand how a regional economy under socialism is transformed after the intrusion of global market forces. My analyses of regional data and indepth case studies reveal that the Zhujiang Delta has since 1979 moved away from the previous impasse of involutionary growth or growth without development and entered a new era of real transformative development in which dramatic growth has occurred not only in agricultural and industrial output but also in labour productivity, per capita income, and employment. The take-off of the delta's regional economy has owed little to the expansion of state-run modern manufacturing, but has been fueled primarily by numerous small-scale, labour-intensive, and rural-base industries. The spatial outcome of this rural industrialization has been a rapid urbanization of the countryside, especially of the area adjacent to and between major metropolitan centres. There has been no increasing concentration of population in large cities as the conventional wisdom of urban transition might have predicted. Regional development in the Zhujiang Delta during the 1980s was not an outcome of any active state involvement. It was instead a result of relaxed control by the socialist central state over the delta's regional economy. Local governments, along with the collective and private sectors, are found to be the chief agents responsible for the transformation of the peasant economy and the development of the transport infrastructure. The penetration of global market forces via Hong Kong into the Zhujiang Delta has significantly facilitated the process of economic, spatial, and social transformation. This study of the operating mechanism of regional development in the Zhujiang Delta presents a dialectical model of local-global interaction to combat the two prevailing schools of exogenism and endogenism. It also suggests that previous theories on Chinese regional development, which assumed a strong socialist central state monopolizing local economic affairs, might need fundamental modifications. For the Zhujiang Delta, the development of which is still in the early take-off stage, the establishment of a modern transport infrastructure has shown remarkable effects, leading to rather than following the growth of the delta's economy. Finally, the relocation of transnational capital and manufacturing production from Hong Kong to the Zhujiang Delta has not displayed a spatial tendency of high concentration in the primate city as the conventional theory of globalization would suggest. Non-economic factors such as historical, cultural, and social linkages between investors and their target regions are found to have played a major role which should not be overlooked in understanding the mechanism and spatial patterns of the internationalization of production.

<p> As cities grew throughout the past century, the availability of locally grown food declined, mostly because urban expansion occurred at the expense of adjacent agricultural land. As a result, city dwellers turned to commercial food market systems that import food from distant production areas. Private greenspace, which is one of the largest land cover types in cities, offers the potential for substantial agricultural production. Because urban food production on private land, such as backyards, requires the willing participation of landowners, resident&rsquo;s feelings about and experience with food growing are important to understand.</p><p> This study examined the demographic differences between food growers and non-food growers with respect to their attitudes and perspectives about backyard food growing. The positive associations, the problems and barriers residents encountered, and the resources they needed to begin food gardening, were identified through questionnaires and in-depth interviews administered to study participants in Palm Beach County, Florida, U.S.A. The demographic groups that were most likely to food garden were those in long-term relationships, higher income brackets, those with college education and residents over 50 years old. Incentives and programs focused on producing more from existing gardens may be most appropriate for people in these demographic groups, while other groups will most require basic food growing information. Study participants highly valued intangible benefits of food gardening (e.g., relaxation, feelings of happiness and satisfaction), often more than the provision of food. Most barriers and problems with backyard food growing, such as a lack of space and the need for gardening information, were similar for those who food garden and those who do not.</p><p> Results from this study indicate that traditional agricultural incentives and perspectives must be rethought if they are to be applied in urban settings. The practice of backyard food gardening, which can be a significant part of sustainable urban agriculture, must be viewed and valued beyond the framework of market commodities and economics. By creating incentives and initiatives that reflect the needs and challenges faced by urban growers, urban agriculture will become an integrated part of the community, improving food quantity and quality while enriching residents&rsquo; lives.</p>

This research considers the likelihood of adoption of and the effectiveness of growth management policy. First, I consider the likelihood that states adopt growth management policies. To conduct this research, I employ the policy diffusion model and add to the economic competition component of this model. I argue that the relative severity of a policy problem influences policy adoption among competing governments. In other words, states remain competitive with other states by adopting a policy when its policy problems are worse or similar to competitor states. This expectation is supported. I find that the higher the relative policy severity the higher the likelihood of policy adoption. Secondly. I examine how institutional structure influences policy outcomes. Here I consider the role of two institutional components: decision-making autonomy and policy-making costs of metropolitan governments. First, I expect that more autonomy at the metropolitan level will result in more effective policy outcomes. Second! I expect that metropolitan areas that receive more state aid will have more effective policy outcomes. Finally, I suggest that a conditional relationship exists between autonomy and transaction costs. More specifically, I contend that transaction costs increase, as a result of increasing autonomy. Metropolitan areas with more autonomy will likely receive less financial assistance, thereby increasing the metropolitan area's cost of implementing a policy. I find that, separately, state aid and autonomy have a significant affect on growth management outcomes. Metropolitan areas that receive state aid have more effective policy outcomes and less autonomous metropolitan areas have less effective policy outcomes. I do not find a conditional relationship between transaction costs and autonomy.