Made available in DSpace on 2015-04-22T19:34:49Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 maria do socorro.pdf: 6734743 bytes, checksum: 9047ab8c59450536703190381ded2b1b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-08-30 / CNPq - Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / The present study was conducted in the Amazon River Basin, comprising the states of Amazonas, Roraima, Pará and Rondônia in order to rank the river water types by taking their natural characteristics into account. Two hundred eighty-nine (289), samples were collected from collecting stations placed along the Amazon River and its tributaries, based on class 2 of the CONAMA Resolution No. 357/2005, following the, high, and low water periods from March 2009 to July 2012. The techniques used were potentiometric condutometria, in visible spectrophotometry, mass spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma (ICP) and atomic absorption spectroscopy (A.A). The physical and chemical characteristics of the rivers are heterogeneous, with pH ranging from acid (3.6) to alkaline (7.56), dissolved oxygen from 1.41 mg/L (slightly oxygenated) to 10.00 mg/L (well oxygenated). In the rainy season the water is acidified, with more oxygen and higher levels of turbidity, suspended solids and silica. The waters of the Amazon River basin are bicarbonated and those of Andean origin (main channel of the Amazon River) are calcic. Data was grouped with the aid of descriptive statistics of R, and the natural water type boundaries were determined according to their regional standards. To assess whether there were differences in the types of water within the Amazon basin , we used cluster analysis (HCA), which showed the existence of three regions: a) the one further west that receives the influence of the Andean and pre-Andean rivers with higher electrical conductivity (40.00 to 80.00 μS/cm), pH ranging from slightly acidic to alkaline (values between 6.5 and 7.6) ex. the Amazon River and some tributaries of the right bank; b) the one to the north, influenced by the Guyana Shield, presenting slightly acidic water (pH between 4.6 and 6.5), and conductivity <40.00 μS/cm, such as. the tributaries of the left bank, and c ) a third region that is under the influence of the Brazilian Shield, the water going from slightly acidic to neutral ( pH between 6.0 and 7.0 ), also featuring low ionic charges with conductivity < 40.0 mS / cm, e.g., tributaries of the right bank of the lower Amazon, such as the Tapajós and Xingu. To estimate the natural limits of some variables considered to be critical, such as pH and dissolved oxygen (DO) , we used the median and quartiles ( percentiles, quartiles and deciles), obtaining the following results for each region: rivers of Andean or pre Andean origin presenting pH ranging from 6.03 to 7.23 OD and 2.12 to 6.04 mg / L, while the rivers originating from the Brazilian Shield the pH ranges from 6.16 to 6.94 OD 6.27 and 9.63 mg / L, and rivers that originate in Guyana Shield it showed to be between 4.66 and 6.66, while the outer diameter was between 2.05 and 7.79 mg/L. In addition to the above variables, we also have the natural color, which can reach 170.54 mgPt / L above legislation. Some metals also exceed the limits of Class 2, CONAMA Resolution No. 357/2005, namely: Ba (8.25 mg/L), Cd (0.87 mg/L), Zn (1.40 mg / L), Mn (1.045 mg/L), Al (0.18 mg / L) Ni (0.05 mg/L) Cr (0.17 mg/L) and Cu (0.14 mg/L). The Amazon presents its own regional peculiarities and our big challenge will be to classify, manage and preserve its natural resources along with both large and small watercourses. Considering the Amazon Basin large extent and number of its tributaries, the present study on sub-surface river waters, still shows to be insufficient for determining its regional standards. / O estudo foi realizado na bacia hidrográfica do rio Amazonas, abrangendo os estados do Amazonas, Roraima, Pará e Rondônia com o objetivo de classificar os tipos de água dos rios respeitando suas características naturais, tendo como referência a classe 2 da Resolução CONAMA nº 357/2005. Foram realizadas 289 coletas, sendo 100 ao longo do rio principal ( Amazonas ), com estações a montante e a jusante das principais cidades e 189 em tributários, seguindo o período de águas altas/cheia e águas baixas/estiagem, no período de março de 2009 a julho de 2012. As técnicas usadas foram potenciometria, condutometria, espectofotometria no visível, espectofotometria de massa, Plasma acoplado por indução (ICP) e espectroscopia de absorção atômica (A.A). As características físicas e químicas das águas dos rios são bastante diversificadas, o pH varia de ácido (3,6) a alcalino (7,56), o oxigênio dissolvido oscila entre 1,41 mg/L (pouco oxigenada) a 10,00 mg/L (bem oxigenada). No período chuvoso as águas são mais acidificadas, mais oxigenadas e com valores mais elevados de turbidez, material em suspensão e sílica. As águas da bacia hidrográfica do rio Amazonas são bicabornatadase os de origem andina (calha principal do rio Amazonas) são cálcicas. Os dados foram agrupados com auxílio da estatística descritiva do R e estabelecidas as faixas dos limites naturais dos tipos de água, a princípio, os padrões regionais. Para avaliar se existem diferenças de tipos de água dentro da própria bacia Amazônica, foi utilizada a análise de agrupamento (AHC), ficando evidenciada a existência de três regiões: a) uma mais a oeste recebendo influência das regiões Andina e pré-Andina, rios com maiores valores de condutividade elétrica (40,00 80,00 μS/cm), o pH variando de pouco ácido a alcalino (valores entre 6,5 e 7,6) ex. rio Amazonas e alguns tributários da margem direita; b) uma ao Norte, influenciada pelo Escudo das Guianas, com águas entre ácidas e ligeiramente ácidas (pH entre 4,6 e 6,5), pouco mineralizadas, com condutividade <40,00 μS/cm, ex. os tributários da margem esquerda; e c) uma terceira região que está sob influência do Escudo Brasileiro, indo de águas ligeiramente ácidas a neutras (pH entre 6,0 e 7,0), apresentando também baixas cargas iônicas com condutividade <40,0 μS/cm, ex. tributários da margem direita do baixo Amazonas, como o Tapajós e o Xingu. Para estimar os limites naturais de algumas variáveis consideradas críticas, como o pH e oxigênio dissolvido (OD), foram utilizados a mediana e o quartil (percentil, quartil e decil), obtendo-se os seguintes resultados para cada região: nos rios de origem Andina ou pré-Andina a faixa de pH foi 6,03-7,23 e OD 2,12-6,04 mg/L; já os rios originários no Escudo Brasileiro tiveram o pH na faixa de 6,16 a 6,94 e o OD entre 6,27 e 9,63 mg/L; e os rios que se originam no Escudo das Guianas o pH ficou entre 4,66 e 6,66, estando o OD entre 2,05 e 7,79 mg/L. Além das variáveis acima, temos ainda a cor natural que pode chegar a 170,54 mgPt/L, ultrapassando em muito a legislação. Alguns metais também naturalmente ultrapassam os limites para classe 2, Resolução CONAMA nº 357/2005, são eles: Ba (8,25 mg/L), Cd (0,87 mg/L), Zn (1,40 mg/L), Mn (1,045 mg/L), Al (0,18 mg/L), Ni (0,05 mg/L), Cr (0,17 mg/L) e Cu (0,14 mg/L). Na Amazônia cada região apresenta suas peculiaridades e o grande desafio na gestão destes recursos será o enquadramento dos grandes rios. Considerando a extensão da bacia Amazônica e o grande número de tributários, este estudo nas águas coletadas apenas na sub-superfície dos rios ainda é insuficiente para definir padrões regionais para toda bacia.

Forests represent both, one of the strongest drivers of, and solutions to, the rapid shift in the earth’s climate. Integrating the use of forests as a cost effective solution into emerging global carbon markets however has proven extremely difficult. The incentive for companies to utilize carbon credits as a means to offset emissions is heavily dependent upon the credibility of the project that created it. The difficulty proving the credibility of forest projects is largely due to the inherent variation associated with forest environments. British Columbia’s pine beetle epidemic provides an extreme example of just how quickly vast carbon sinks can suddenly become sources. As such, the creation of standards to ensure the security of carbon sequestered by forest projects has proven to be instrumental in encouraging their acceptance into the market. British Columbia has recognized that its forests play an integral role in its contribution to the global carbon cycle. As a result, heavy consideration is being made as to how this resource may be integrated as a source of carbon offsets for its own Cap-and-Trade market. This will mean establishing specific standards for forest projects in a BC context. This report reviews two regional standards from the states of Georgia and California, which could be applied as templates for a set of BC specific protocols for forest carbon sequestration projects. It is intended that through a comparison and analysis of these standards that potential problems faced in applying similar standards here will be identified.