<p>Higgins' regulatory focus theory (1997) postulates two cognitive/motivational systems for pursuing desired end states: the promotion and prevention systems. The theory predicts that failure in each system is discriminantly associated with dysphoric and anxious affect respectively; and that significant failure in these systems creates vulnerability to depression and anxiety. This study tested these hypotheses among adolescents who took part in the longitudinal Wisconsin Study of Families and Work. We found partial support for the theory's predictions. Specifically, the original adult Selves Questionnaire (SQ), which was administered at age 13, did not demonstrate the expected discriminant associations with dysphoric and anxious affect and symptoms. However, the Selves Questionnaire - Adolescent Version, which was administered at age 15, yielded partial support for the theory. Ideal self-discrepancy was discriminantly associated with depressive affect but ought self-discrepancy was not discriminantly associated with anxious affect. However, feared self-discrepancy was discriminantly associated with anxious affect, which adds to the literature suggesting that feared self-discrepancy might be a better construct to use in measuring prevention failure among adolescents. The association between self-discrepancy and affect was found cross-sectionally but not longitudinally. The study also tested recently formulated predictions of regulatory focus theory which state that significant failure in one regulatory system is likely to negatively impact the other system (Klenk, Strauman, & Higgins, 2011). No support for this prediction was found. Implications of the findings, and aspects of the study that may have reduced our ability to test the hypotheses of interest, are discussed.</p> / Dissertation

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The Theory of Regulation and the Economic Theory of Regulatory Constraint have not yet been adapted by American Indian Studies scholars to explain and analyze the federal regulations connected with Federal Indian Law and Policy. It is the intention of this thesis to prove the applicability of these theories to the law and policy concentration of American Indian Studies. The adaptation of these two theories could impact how federal regulations affecting Indian Country are viewed and interpreted. An examination of Federal Indian policy, specifically the regulations (43 CFR 10) promulgated for the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) and the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) Section 106 tribal consultation processes (36 CFR PART 800) can provide a case study for understanding the applicability of the Theory of Regulation and the Economic Theory of Regulatory Constraint to a common regulatory process in Federal Indian Law.

Football clubs have multiple stakeholders sometimes with different and conflicting objectives. If a club concentrates solely on achieving sporting success at the expense of its financial objectives, it risks jeopardizing its long-term stability, which may affect the sporting integrity of the league as a whole. The behaviour of one club potentially has externality implications for other stakeholders which cannot always be internalised. There is therefore the need for regulation of the pre-emptive type to avert such negative consequences for clubs. FIFA has requested all member associations to implement club licensing to improve upon professionalism in management and to ensure long-term stability of club football. This thesis picks up on this theme to review the financial regulatory system in Ghana, obtain lessons from other jurisdictions and develop an incentive-based context-specific Football Financial Clearinghouse framework that is applicable in Ghana. The thesis employs a mixed-method research approach to evaluate the financial disclosure, position and performance of professional football clubs in Ghana, utilising critical reviews, interviews, focus group discussions and questionnaires to answer specific research questions. The empirical analysis in this thesis shows that financial licensing and monitoring needs to be complemented by the provision of incentives and support services to clubs to achieve optimal regulatory compliance. The key incentive in the specific case of Ghana is to ensure regulated access to credit. This thesis makes four significant contributions to knowledge by showing that: Ghanaian football clubs are in a difficult financial situation; there is an appetite for change amongst Ghanaian football’s stakeholders for a new financial regulatory framework; the existing financial regulatory frameworks, especially in Europe, are not applicable in the Ghanaian context as they were made for a different jurisdiction; and that the FFC framework would be an appropriate context-specific framework to deal with the financial regulation of Ghanaian football clubs.

This study analyzes the foundation and the meaning of regulation, specifically from the legal and economic perspective. A basic budget of public interest theories of regulation arises, in a context of freedom. Thus, the role of law as a regulator in society and the various justifications presented for it will be verified. / El presente estudio analiza los fundamentos y el concepto de regulación, vista esta última específicamente desde la perspectiva jurídico- económica. Se propone la existencia de un presupuesto básico de las teorías de interés público de regulación, en un contexto de libertad. De esta manera, se comprobarán la función del derecho como regulador en la sociedad y las diversas justificaciones que se presentan para ello.

過去電信事業強調無論任何一端用戶透過電話機、傳輸線路、交換機等網路連接至另一端用戶，進行點對點(end to end)語音或數據之通信時，基於網路不可分割之特性，進行整體固定網路設備投資相當龐大，且因具規模經濟特性而形成自然獨占；加以其多屬民生攸關之公用事業，又須具備一定之服務品質及可負擔之合理價格，始能提供不論居住何處之全國民眾使用，故大多由政府主導經營。 　　然隨著電信自由化來臨，民國八十五年七月一日電信解制，分為監理電信業務之電信總局及國營事業之中華電信公司，確立監管架構及電信業務開放以引進競爭市場。惟為避免新進業者會對更多需求及更可獲利的城市地區首先提供服務，而忽略了鄉村偏遠地區，形成吸脂作用(Cream skimming)。故顯然電信自由化後，儘管商業利益的考量是競爭市場存續的重要因素之一，然而為避免關切公共服務的精神隨之而消失，那麼政府如何適度藉入以求得其間的平衡性，這應屬必要的。 　　基本上，應以國民基本通信之概念考量普及服務之範圍，同時應基於公平及合理的原則下，以負擔得起且日常生活中有必要的電信服務；然由於在公平的、合理的、負擔得起、有必要性等充分條件下，仍須加上一定的「服務品質」為必要條件，才能使普及服務的精神顯露，特別在隨著電信科技發展、社會環境變遷及民眾需求，仍須作階段性不同之定義，才能符合普及服務的真正目的。 　　因此，本論文採用文獻探討、政策德菲法(Delphi method)及實例探討，從管制理論的基礎，說明管制因環境之所需，尤其當電信自由化之初，引入市場競爭之同時，適時的管制對於公平的競爭是有需要的；另再參酌美國、英國、澳洲、香港及法國等先進國家之電信普及服務機制，透過美國、英國、澳洲及香港等國家之電信監理機構之網站，及相關電信自由化之文獻，蒐集到各國對普及服務相關之管理方式與法規規定，歸納出各國對普及服務目標之界定，普及服務之提供者，成本計算方式，分攤普及服務之義務者及分攤方式等，再進行整理、分析與比較，嚐試提出一個適合國情的普及服務制度，並對實務執行所面對的問題提出建議，以供主管機關參考。 　　本論文結論重點為，除建立一套含理論及實務運作的電信普及服務機制外，為發現整理出相關問題如：(1)「電信事業普及服務基金」非為政府基金之管理，是否須要編列年度業務計畫及預算書，值得商榷。(2)就商業利益考量，固網業者收取申裝市內電話之「界外工料費」應無不可，然是否能適用普及服務補助的問題。(3)易將普及服務基金視為另一個社會安全或防災救助的課題，扭曲其設立之精神。(4)提供普及服務所產生之無形利益是否應納入棄置營收之計算。(5)海岸電台船舶遇險及安全通信服務是否納入普及服務之考量。 　　其政策建議重點則為：(1)為消彌外界之疑慮，並兼顧效率運作之原則，除必要之管理費用應撙節使用外，相關之收支帳目宜經由會計師簽證予以公開透明化。(2)為維護消費者之權利，裝置材料費用應有下降趨勢，應重新檢討並提出合理成本，訂定合理之收費方式。(3)社會安全或急難救助所經費，應由社會福利安全政策編列預算支應，以免增加電信業者之成本負擔，並轉價至最終消費者。(4)無形利益應可加以計算納入棄置營收項目內，可利用每一家或前五大業者平均的廣告效果估算；或利用消費者行為之抽樣問卷調查，求出潛在消費者及平均消費之貢獻，做為無形利益的推估。(5)可成立專案小組，針對海岸電台設備及維運費用等訂定效率化之衡量標準；或以公開招標方式，徵求自願投入之電信業者；或協調海巡暑整編至該單位。(6)必須建立一套成本資料管理及稽核制度，以增加核算資料的明確性。(7)考慮修法開放可以行動電話做為普及服務之提供，公開徵詢有興趣之行動電話業者，並於北、中、南區各找一處以行動電話提供普及服務之實驗。(8)第一類電信事業部分，可由普及服務管理委員會就經營效率性、虧損之持續性等相關因素，予以審核後得免予繳交；第二類電信事業部分，以經營語音單純轉售及網路電話兩項從事語音電話服務為主，衡酌經營差異程度，排除一定營業額以下者可免予繳交。 / In the past, in order to provide seamless end-to-end communications services for the end users, telecom enterprises that required cost-sunk expenditure, economies of scale and operated an indivisible network had been regarded as a naturally monopolistic business. Moreover, telecommunications as one of public services relevant to the people’s livelihood has to be provided for all nationals at an affordable price and a reasonable level of service quality. As a result, most telecom enterprises worldwide were operated and conducted by the Government. 　　Nevertheless, along with the global trend of telecom liberalization, on July 1 1996 our government reorganized the DGT into a sole telecom regulator and established the state-own holding company, CHT, to provide telecom services, with a view to build up a regulatory regime and to open the telecom market further. To avoid newcomers in a competitive environment tending to focus on high revenue growth telecommunication markets, such as metropolitan areas, resulting in the phenomenon of ‘cream skimming’ and in the impediment to the spirit of public services, there is a need for government intervention in the provision of telecom services. 　　Basically, the concept of universal telecommunications service shall be confined to the basic telecommunication services which are indispensable to every citizens and should be provided on reasonable request at an affordable price and a reasonable level of quality. However, universal telecommunications service might has different definitions over time so as to fulfill its policy objectives in each phase given the development of technologies and the changes in social environment. 　　Accordingly, by conducting Documentary-type method, Delphi method and Case Studies, this dissertation has illustrated with regulatory theory why regulation shall be based on the requirement of the environment. Particularly, during the early stages of telecom liberalization, regulatory involvement at right moment is required for creating a level-playing field when introducing competition. From the websites of several telecom regulators in advanced countries, e.g. US, UK, Australia, HK, etc., and some literatures on telecom liberalization, this dissertation has collected those countries’ management criteria and legal framework for universal service and summed up their universal service objectives, providers, cost calculation methods and obligation sharing mechanisms. Then through a further analysis and comparison, it has tried to propose a universal service mechanism that might better fit our national conditions and offer the authority concerned some practical recommendations for the implementation issues. 　　In conclusion, this dissertation has built up a universal telecommunications service mechanism based on both theoretical analyses and practical considerations. Besides, it has included some key findings as follows: (1) Given the fact that the universal service fund is not one kind of government funds, shall it still be managed through annual official planning and budgeting? (2) From a viewpoint of profitable undertaking, a fixed network operator might want to charge a remote subscriber outside its service area for some extra facilities fees for service installation. This might be reasonable under commercial terms. But shall we allow such extra fees to be subsidized by the universal service fund? (3) Some people might regard the purpose of the universal service fund as an issue on social security or emergency rescue, and hence distort the spirit of universal service fund. (4) It is questionable whether intangible benefits, resulting form the provision of universal service, could be grouped into revenue forgone. (5) Is it appropriate for an operator to recover its costs of providing coastal radio maritime emergency and safety communication services from the universal service fund? 　　Furthermore, it has given several key policy recommendations as follows: (1) For the sake of dispelling people’s doubts and managing the efficiency in universal service fund, all of the accounts of expenditures shall be open and transparent except that the administrative costs must be kept at minimum. (2) In order to protect consumers’ rights, the equipment installation fee should follow a downward trend and must be cost based. (3) To avoid increasing the burden of telecom operators whose costs are ultimately entailed by consumers, budgets for social security or emergency rescue should be supported by national social welfare policies. (4) Intangible revenue that might be calculable by evaluating average effect of advertisement of each operator or top five operators should be grouped into revenue foregone. Or it may be possible to make a sampling survey of consumers’ behavior, finding the average contribution of each potential customer so as to estimate intangible revenue. (5) Grouping a task force to revise measuring criteria for the facilities and maintenance costs in coastal radio services efficiently. Besides, bids for these services may be opened for volunteers, or be coordinated with and incorporated into the function of Coast Guard Administration, Executive Yuan. (6) It is necessary to build up a mechanism of data management and auditing so as to increase the accountability of re-calculating data. (7) To think over the feasibility that mobile phone can be used for the provision of universal service as well by revising the relevant laws, and then in North, Middle, and South Taiwan, try to conduct a field trial in each area for providing universal service by using mobile phone. (8) For Type I telecommunications businesses, universal service committee can exempt them from universal service obligations with the concerns about their operation efficiency and the duration of losing money, and so on. For Type II telecommunications businesses, only those operating voice communications services, including simple resale and internet phone services, should bear the obligations, but whether they need to make contributions to the universal service fund or not can be decided through the evaluation of their business performance.