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With water resources becoming scarcer every year, studying the negotiation processes that leads to the treaties that govern the distribution of water rights across national boundaries is more important than ever. Sub-state units sometimes play an important role in the negotiation of such treaties and thus it is important to better understand how specific types of regional, transborder sub-state units operate both within the context of their respective federal systems and in relation to each other. Exploring the case study of the Columbia River Treaty—governing the area known as the upper Columbia River Basin— and the Water Policy Working Group of the Pacific NorthWest Economic Region (PNWER), this thesis uses documentary sources and original qualitative interviews to examine the roles of sub-state governments and federalism on the original Columbia River Treaty negotiations, as well as the effect the historical legacy of the Treaty negotiations has left on constituent diplomacy today. Examining constituent diplomacy through a micro rather than macro lens, the thesis also explores the role of constituent diplomacy within PNWER with respect to the upcoming Columbia River Treaty negotiations and the impact that PNWER’s governance model has on the effectiveness and functionality of constituent diplomacy. The thesis demonstrates that sub-state governments, specifically the B.C. government, played a vital role in original Treaty negotiations, and suggests that the past Treaty negotiations are relevant to constituent diplomacy today because of modern-day and future Treaty negotiations and ongoing Treaty implementation. Drawing on documentary evidence and original interview data, this thesis details current PNWER governance structures and practices and then moves to argue that the structure, functions and dynamics of the Canadian and American federal systems can impact the effectiveness and functionality of constituent diplomacy.

Benthic foraminifera inhabiting the mudflats of the Eden Estuary, NE Scotland, exhibited a single annual peak in abundance at both high (270 individuals 10 cm⁻²) and low shore (210 individuals 10 cm⁻²) intertidal sampling stations during June 2000. The increased total abundance coincided with reproduction in the two dominant foraminiferal species Elphidium williamsoni (May) and Haynesina germanica (June) at both sites. Benthic diatom biomass, measured as chlorophyll c, peaked at the high intertidal site during March and April 2001 (36 and 37 mg m cm⁻², respectively) and at the low intertidal site in June2000 (45 mg m cm⁻²). The high intertidal foraminiferal populations appeared to display a lagged response to increases in chlorophyll c. Multivariate statistics suggest that abiotic factors control the abundance of foraminifera at the high intertidal site. At the low intertidal site, total foraminiferal abundance demonstrated an almost immediate response to increased chlorophyll c and multivariate statistics suggested biotic factors are more important in controlling foraminiferal species abundance here. Ingestion rates of ¹³C-Iabelled benthic diatoms over a five-day experimental period were high (e.g. enrichment values for Elphidium were recorded as 687 ± 121 % after 1 day) in intertidal benthic foraminifera. Laboratory observations of E. williamsoni demonstrated rapid asexual reproduction (within 3 days) and growth rates of up to 14 µm day⁻¹ were estimated. Three benthic foraminiferal species E. williamsoni, H germanica and E. oceanensis ingest motile benthic diatoms as a food resource on the intertidal mudflats of the Eden Estuary. Novel application of natural abundance stable isotope (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N) techniques demonstrated the trophic position of intertidal benthic foraminifera, confirming that they largely ingest and assimilate organic matter derived from benthic diatoms. Foraminifera have largely been overlooked in meiofaunal studies, but play a significant role in the rapid transfer of autotrophic carbon to higher trophic levels within benthic marine food webs.

This research project provides a geomorphological and geological analysis of ephemeral and relict river valley systems in the north part of the Iraqi Western Desert. The area surveyed covers approximately 30 000 km2 and is one of the remotest and least studied parts of the Arabian Peninsula. Part of the reason for the lack of research in this area in recent years has been the ongoing security problems and all fieldwork undertaken for this thesis was carried out with the support of armed guards and police. In addition much of the work on the geology and geomorphology of the region is in confidential files commissioned by oil companies, and in MSc and PhD theses held in Iraqi Universities. A significant part of this work and indeed many scientific papers, are only available in Arabic. Therefore a major element of the work for this thesis has been to translate this material and make the results available in English for the first time. The study demonstrates that the present surface of the Iraqi Western Desert overall forms an incised plateau developed during two phases of continental erosion and deposition during the Tertiary and Quaternary periods. The first phase started after Oligocene uplift formed an older plateau within the Oligocene Tayarat formation. This plateau is characterized by denudation processes associated with a semiarid climate, including the formation of subsurface hollows and caves. The second phase, which began after the last Alpine Orogenic movement, and includes the Pliocene and Quaternary periods, formed a younger plateau developed on the Zahra formation. This younger plateau is characterized by processes indicative of climatic fluctuations from wet to arid and semiarid, which induced denudation in places and deposition in others. However, in terms of the geomorphological landforms present in the Western Desert they can be broadly divided into: i) Structural and erosion-denudation forms ii) Accumulation forms Lithology landform in these two categories has resulted in the production of a new geomorphological map of the Iraqi Western Desert. A key component of this map uses the drainage networks. Four distinct drainage systems were identified: 1. The valleys which descend from west to east. These valley systems are located to the south and south east town of Rutba 2. The valleys which descend from south to north. These lie to the west and southwest of Rutba and are controlled by the north to south strike of exposed Palaeogene strata. 3. The valleys which descend from east south to north west, located north of the Garaa area like Ratga and Akash. 4. The valleys which descend from east to west. These valley systems are located to the south and south west town of Rutba, like Swab and Wallaj valleys. Investigation of these four networks established that they were relict systems that still carried ephemerally active misfit rivers and stream. The overall control on their form was the alternating sequences of variable strength rocks that were exposed and eroded as part of the uplift of an anticlinorium (Houran) and anticline (Garaa), associated with the Alpine Orogeny .However, the unclearing Structures were much older and can be traced back to Permian tectonic processes. The drainage of the Western Desert, therefore, is antecedent and controlled by Tertiary and Quaternary tectonics. The rivers appear to have active throughout the Pleistocene incising into the Western Desert plateaux. Highest incision rates probably occurred during more pluvial periods in the Pleistocene which may have been coincident with glacial marine in the Northern Hemisphere. The contemporary rivers are misfit within larger valleys although still subject to flash floods under the right metrological condition.

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This report describes the development and application of a spreadsheet -based model of the water budget and water management systems of the Upper San Pedro River Basin in southeastern Arizona. The model has been given the name, WATERBUD.

Thesis (MPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The large mammal faunal sample, excavated since 1984 from the Late Pleistocene Klasies River main site, was studied. There are 27 species in eight genera represented. The bovids from the LBS member (110 000 years) and the Upper member (70 000 years) shows an increase in grazers relative to the fauna from the SAS member (100 000 years). This confirms previous research. The study of body part frequencies does not confirm the selective transport of the carcasses of larger bovids or that scavenging played an important role in the accumulation of the fauna. It is concluded that availability of marine mammals were the attraction of the locality and that all size classes of bovids were actively hunted and their carcasses returned to the site. KEYWORDS: Klasies River, Late Pleistocene, large mammal fauna, hunting. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die groot soogdier fauna van die Laat Pleistoseen vindplaas Klasies River main site, opgegrawe vanaf 1984, is bestudeer. Sewe-en-twintig spesies in agt genera is verteenwoordig. Die bokke van die LBS member (110 000 jare) en die Upper member (70 000 jare) toon 'n styging in grasvreters relatief tot dié van die SAS member (100 000 jare). Dit bevestig 'n vorige ondersoek. Die bestudering van ligaamsdeel frekwensies van alle groottes bokke bevestig nie dat selektiewe vervoer van groter bokkarkasse plaasgevind het nie, of dat aas 'n rol in die akkumulasie van die fauna gespeel het nie. Die gevolgtrekking is gemaak dat die teenwoordigheid van marine soogdiere die rede was vir die keuse van hierdie vindplaas was. Alle groottes bokke is doelbewus gejag en hulle karkasse is teruggebring na die vindplaas. SLEUTELWOORDE: Klasies River, Laat Pleistoseen, groot soogdiere, jag.

This study focuses on the design of water resources systems in developing nations with particular reference to the development of water resources in the Lower Mekong Basin (Khmer Republic, Laos, Thailand, and Republic of South Viet -Nam). The determination of the "best" system in terms of social goals reflecting the economic and social environment of the Mekong countries is the main issue of this dissertation. The imperfection of the usual technique for planning water resources systems, namely, cost -benefit analysis, leads to the use of the standardized cost -effectiveness methodology. To illustrate how the design is accomplished, two distinctly different structural alternatives of possible development in the Lower Mekong Basin are defined. The design process starts from the statements of goals or objectives of water resources development, which are then mapped onto specifications sets in which social needs are represented. Next, the capabilities of alternative systems are determined through simulation in which three 50 -year sequences of synthetic streamflow are generated by a first order autoregressive scheme. The two alternatives are then compared using both quantitative and qualitative criteria. To illustrate how a decision in selecting an alternative system could be reached, ranking of criteria by order of preference is demonstrated. With the choice of either a fixed -cost or fixed- effectiveness approach, the decision to select the best alternative system could be made. At this point, the use of a weighting technique, which is a common fallacy of systems analysis, will be automatically eliminated. The study emphasizes that a systematic design procedure of water resources systems is provided by the standardized cost- effectiveness approach, which possesses several advantages. The approach will suggest and help identify the system closest to meeting the desired economic and social goals of the developing countries in the Lower Mekong Basin. In this connection, the approach will help governments in the preparation of programming and budgeting of capital for further investigations and investments. It is believed that the approach will eliminate unnecessary expenses in projects that are planned on an individual basis or by methods used at present. Further, the approach provides an appropriate mechanism for generating essential information in the decision process. Both quantifiable and non -quantifiable criteria are fully considered. The choice of a fixed -cost or fixed -effectiveness approach will determine the trade -off between these criteria. The study recognizes that research to determine appropriate hydrologic models for monthly streamfiow generation for tributary projects in the Basin is necessary. This leads to another important area of research which is to find the appropriate number of monthly sequences of streamflow to be generated in relation to number of states and decision variables. Research on the design of computer experiments is necessary to improve simulation as a tool to estimate the quantitative effects of a given project.

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