Research casts interracial romantic partners (IRPs) as deficient in their relational functioning compared to same-race partners due to the potential for increased relational conflict and stress. More relational stressors are likely to result in a higher need for social support from network members. Yet, interracial partners can maintain satisfying, thriving relationships and experience few racially motivated stressors, rendering support unnecessary at times. The dissertation explores the social resources IRPs use to maintain their interracial romantic relationships (IRRs) by examining processes of social support and strain among Black-White IRPs and their family members. In these processes, the researcher focuses specifically on support expectations, which are anticipations of the support individuals are likely to receive from particular others. The researcher conducted in-depth interviews with 32 IRPs and 30 parents of IRPs to understand support as a cohesive, long-term process involving participants’ support expectations and their violations, which could result in experiences of support and/or strain. A grounded theory analysis of the interview data resulted in an inductive model of expectations for social support and strain. Three constructs influenced expectations for IRR involvement and support, including exposure to racial diversity, assessments of racial identifications, and cultural comparisons. Based on these expectations, participants came across three support paths after initiating support-seeking disclosure strategies. Their expectations for familial support were met, they received more support than they anticipated, and/or they received less support than expected. Encounters with these support paths resulted in support and strain for IRPs and their parents, however interracial partnerships largely experienced resilience whereas hardships befell familial ties. Taken together, the results contribute to theorizing about processes of support and their functionality in underrepresented romantic relationship forms.

This study investigated romantic relationship attitudes and experiences as factors of interethnic romantic relationships among Native American (NA) emerging adults. The study included 114 participants ages 18 to 25 years from about 70 NA indigenous groups across North America. Factors were organized into the moral, societal, and psychological domains of the social-cognitive domain theory. Factors identified by this study included four significant predictors of past interethnic dating and three significant predictors of future likelihood of NA dating among emerging adults with differences between NA relationships with Whites or with other minorities. Past dating experiences associated with strong White identity, past multicultural interaction, diversity climate in childhood community, and past parental support of interethnic dating relationships. Future likelihood of engagement in interethnic romantic relationships for NA emerging adults associated with past interethnic dating and other multicultural interactions. Past multicultural interactions was the only predictor that emerged in NA romantic relationships with both Whites and other minorities.

Healthy romantic relationships are positively associated with physical and mental health outcomes, and past research has shown that traditional masculinity negatively impacts relationship satisfaction. The current study examined the effects of men's discrepancies between their self-ratings and perceptions of their peers' on autonomous and pressured motivations to act agentically on relationship outcomes for both partners in a heterosexual relationship. In addition, men's investment in gender ideals was measured as a potential moderator and men's self-esteem as a potential mediator. Specifically, it was predicted that men's self-esteem would mediate the association between the investment-by-discrepancies (autonomous and pressured) interactions and relationship satisfaction reported by both partners. Results of polynomial regressions on 183 romantic relationship dyads did not support predictions. Limitations presented include scale validity, the correlational design of the study, and the conceptualization of pressured and autonomous motivations as opposites of each other. Future directions included exploring the various forms of men's agentic extrinsic motivations and how they associate with relationship outcomes; and the utilization of real-time relationship behaviors observed during an interaction between romantic relationship partners.

Bipolar disorder is an extremely devastating illness, and increasingly robust evidence indicates that it emerges during adolescence. Also during adolescence, peer relationships, particularly close friendships and romantic relationships, become a central mechanism for social maturation and emotional development. The consequences of mania on the development of peer relationships have received little attention. Thus, the purpose of the current study was to examine the association between mania and close peer relationship quality in a community sample of adolescents. Two types of close peer relationships, close friendships and romantic relationships, were evaluated. In addition, the current study examined two potential mediators of the association between mania and close relationship quality, social skills and social dominance. Due to the substantial overlap between symptoms of mania and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and the documented peer relationship difficulties experienced by youth with ADHD, symptoms of ADHD were controlled in study analyses. Participants were 571 adolescents (57% female; 19% 10th grade, 30% 11th grade, 51% 12th grade; 66% Hispanic, 17% White, 7% African-American and Caribbean American, 4% Asian, and 6% mixed or other ethnicity) from 2 public high schools in the Southeastern United States. Adolescents completed self-report questionnaires during school. The Hypomanic Personality Scale (HPS) was used to assess adolescents' risk for mania. Adolescents reported on their social skills (empathy, cooperation, and assertion) using the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS). The Social Dominance Scale (SDS) was used to assess adolescents' tendency to be overly intrusive or dominant in social situations. The Conners-Wells' Adolescent Self-Report Scale (CASS) was used to assess adolescents' self-reported symptoms of ADHD. Parent-report was obtained for 50 adolescents by phone interview. Parent-reported symptoms of mania, social skills, and symptoms of ADHD were assessed. Four hypotheses guided study analyses. First, it was expected that greater levels of mania would be associated with fewer positive qualities and more negative qualities in a close friendship and romantic relationship. Second, it was hypothesized that more symptoms of mania would be associated with poorer social skills and greater levels of social dominance. Third, social skills and social dominance were expected to mediate the association between mania and close relationshp quality. Fourth, it was expected that the hypothesized relationships between mania, social skills, social dominance, and close relationship quality would remain significant after controlling for the association between mania and symptoms of ADHD. Gender was examined as a moderator in the main study analyses. Ethnicity and age were used as control variables. Data analyses were conducted using structural equation modeling with Mplus. Gender was found to be a moderator, and so all study analyses were examined separately for boys and girls. All adolescents reported having at least one close friend. Fifty-four percent (n = 307) of adolescents reported having a romantic partner. Analyses examining qualities of adolescents' romantic relationships were conducted using only those adolescents who reported having a romantic partner. In terms of the first hypothesis, for boys, higher levels of mania were directly associated with more positive qualities in a close friendship, and were also indirectly associated with more positive qualities in both a close friendship and romantic relationship. For girls, higher levels of mania were indirectly associated with more positive qualities in a close friendship, fewer negative qualities in both a close friendship and romantic relationship, and also more negative qualities in both a close friendship and romantic relationship. In terms of the second hypothesis, higher levels of mania were associated with greater empathy for both boys and girls. Higher levels of mania were also associated with more social dominance for both boys and girls. In terms of the third hypothesis, for boys, empathy mediated the association between mania and more positive qualities in a close friendship and romantic relationship. For girls, empathy mediated the association between mania and more positive qualities in a close friendship, and also mediated the association between mania and fewer negative qualities in a close friendship and romantic relationship. For girls, assertion also mediated the association between mania and fewer negative qualities in a close friendship. Finally, for girls, social dominance mediated the association between mania and more negative qualities in both a close friendship and romantic relationship. With regard to the fourth hypothesis, despite significant associations with some study variables, the associations described above remained significant with symptoms of ADHD entered as a control variable in the models. Findings suggest that empathy is an important strength associated with risk for mania in both boys and girls. Through empathy, close friendship and romantic relationship quality was positively associated with risk for mania in boys and girls. Social dominance was also strongly associated with risk for mania in both boys and girls, indicating that social dominance might be one way to differentiate emerging mania from other disorders, such as ADHD, in adolescents. Social dominance, however, was only associated with relationship quality for girls, and specifically, was associated with more negative qualities in both close friendships and romantic relationships. This may be one area, therefore, that girls at-risk for mania might be able to target in order to improve peer relationships. Future research might examine these associations longitudinally in order to determine causality. Additionally, studying close peer relationship quality in adolescents diagnosed with bipolar disorder would be of interest in future research.

The present research tested whether and how regulatory focus as a motivational variable influences the ways in which people appraise, process, and react to events in romantic relationships. Regulatory focus theory distinguishes between (1) a prevention focus, which emphasizes the fulfillment of security needs, duties and obligations, and is associated with heightened sensitivity to aversive outcomes, and (2) a promotion focus, which emphasizes the fulfillment of nurturance needs, accomplishments and aspirations, and is associated with heightened sensitivity to rewarding outcomes. Based on regulatory focus theory, it was assumed that promotion and prevention focused people would appraise, react to, and process interpersonal events involving a romantic partner in different ways. In addition, it was expected that the distinct ways of experiencing such events are reflected in differences in relationship quality. Three studies using college student samples were conducted to test these notions. Evidence was found that individual differences in chronic prevention focus affect the ways in which people react to aversive events in relationships. No support was obtained for regulatory focus theory??s predictions regarding prevention focus processes in association with rewarding outcomes, and predictions related to the promotion focus system were also not supported. As expected, chronic promotion focus was related to higher relationship quality, and chronic prevention focus was associated with lower relationship quality. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Prior research has indicated that family experiences, including parental divorce, interparental conflict, and the parent-child relationship, play an important role in adult childrens romantic relationships (e.g., Wallerstein & Lewis, 1998; Mahl, 2001; Harvey & Fine, 2004). Research on how these variables may work in combination and on how these family experiences affect romantic relationships during the developmental period of emerging adulthood is lacking. The current study investigated the impact that family divorce has on features of emerging adults romantic relationships. It also examined whether these relationships are mediated by parent-child relationship, are moderated by interparental conflict, and vary with gender and age at the time of divorce.<p>A total of 310 students between the ages of 18-25 from University of Saskatchewan participated in this study. Contrary to the hypothesis, the findings showed that in their romantic relationships emerging adults from divorced families, compared to emerging adults from intact families, had a higher degree of three romantic features: care, commitment, and maintenance. Partly in line with the hypothesis, only retrospective interparental conflict moderated the link between family structure and romantic conflict. Finally, differences, regardless of family structure, were found between males and females, where females indicated having higher levels of intimacy and males indicated having higher levels of coercion in their romantic relationships. Possible explanations for the findings and implications for future research are discussed.

Research on racial border patrolling has demonstrated how people police racial borders in order to maintain socially constructed differences and reinforce divisions between racial groups and their members. Existing literature on border patrolling has primarily focused on white/black couples and multiracial families, with discussions contrasting “white border patrolling” and “black border patrolling,” in terms of differential motivations, intentions, and goals (Dalmage 2000). In my dissertation research, I examined a different type of policing racial categories and the spaces in-between these shifting boundaries. I offer up “multiracial interracial border patrolling” as a means of understanding how borderism impacts the lives of “multiracial” individuals in “interracial” relationships. In taking a look at how both identities and relationships involve racial negotiations, I conducted 60 in-depth, face-to-face qualitative interviews with people who indicated having racially mixed parentage or heritage. Respondents shared their experiences of publicly and privately managing their sometimes shifting preferred racial identities; often racially ambiguous appearance; and situationally in/visible “interracial” relationships in an era of colorblind racism. This management included encounters with border patrolling from strangers, significant others, and self. Not only did border patrolling originate from these three sources, but also manifested itself in a variety of forms, including benevolent (positive, supportive); beneficiary (socially and sometimes economically or materially beneficial); protective, and malevolent (negative, malicious, conflictive). Throughout, I discussed the border patrolling variations that “multiracial” individuals in “interracial” relationships face. I also worked to show how people’s participation in border patrolling encouraged their production of colorblind discourses as a strategy for masking their racial attitudes and ideologies about “multiracial” individuals in “interracial” relationships.

Prior research has indicated that family experiences, including parental divorce, interparental conflict, and the parent-child relationship, play an important role in adult childrens romantic relationships (e.g., Wallerstein & Lewis, 1998; Mahl, 2001; Harvey & Fine, 2004). Research on how these variables may work in combination and on how these family experiences affect romantic relationships during the developmental period of emerging adulthood is lacking. The current study investigated the impact that family divorce has on features of emerging adults romantic relationships. It also examined whether these relationships are mediated by parent-child relationship, are moderated by interparental conflict, and vary with gender and age at the time of divorce.<p>A total of 310 students between the ages of 18-25 from University of Saskatchewan participated in this study. Contrary to the hypothesis, the findings showed that in their romantic relationships emerging adults from divorced families, compared to emerging adults from intact families, had a higher degree of three romantic features: care, commitment, and maintenance. Partly in line with the hypothesis, only retrospective interparental conflict moderated the link between family structure and romantic conflict. Finally, differences, regardless of family structure, were found between males and females, where females indicated having higher levels of intimacy and males indicated having higher levels of coercion in their romantic relationships. Possible explanations for the findings and implications for future research are discussed.

Two studies were conducted to test the central hypothesis that internal working models of attachment will influence false memory in a model-congruent pattern. Participants in both studies were first primed with a relationship-specific attachment model by writing about a person with whom they shared a secure, anxious, or avoidant relationship. Next participants viewed attachment-relevant and non-relevant stimuli presented in either a word list or vignette format. Afterwards they completed a brief distracter task followed by a category cued-recall memory test. Study 2 participants also reported confidence ratings for each word recalled. Results from both studies demonstrated interactive effects between chronic attachment and relationshipspecific models in predicting false memories. Effects were found primarily for attachment stimuli relevant to social isolation and hate/rejection themes. Both model-congruent and modelincongruent effects emerged depending on stimuli set and chronic attachment style. Notably, no attachment-based differences in false memories occurred for non-attachment stimuli. Finally, a consistent association was found between confidence in false recall and congruence between participants' chronic and relationship-specific working models; specifically, greater confidence was associated with congruency, and lower confidence with incongruence. This pattern occurred for both attachment-relevant and non-relevant stimuli. The results of this research provide further support for a key proposition of attachment theory; namely, that relationship working models influence how individuals process relationship-relevant information in general. In addition, this research contributes new knowledge regarding the generation of false memories in particular.

The present research tested whether and how regulatory focus as a motivational variable influences the ways in which people appraise, process, and react to events in romantic relationships. Regulatory focus theory distinguishes between (1) a prevention focus, which emphasizes the fulfillment of security needs, duties and obligations, and is associated with heightened sensitivity to aversive outcomes, and (2) a promotion focus, which emphasizes the fulfillment of nurturance needs, accomplishments and aspirations, and is associated with heightened sensitivity to rewarding outcomes. Based on regulatory focus theory, it was assumed that promotion and prevention focused people would appraise, react to, and process interpersonal events involving a romantic partner in different ways. In addition, it was expected that the distinct ways of experiencing such events are reflected in differences in relationship quality. Three studies using college student samples were conducted to test these notions. Evidence was found that individual differences in chronic prevention focus affect the ways in which people react to aversive events in relationships. No support was obtained for regulatory focus theory??s predictions regarding prevention focus processes in association with rewarding outcomes, and predictions related to the promotion focus system were also not supported. As expected, chronic promotion focus was related to higher relationship quality, and chronic prevention focus was associated with lower relationship quality. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.