Thirty trials of each of three roughness conditions were examined. The first condition consisted of a baseball pitched so that two of the roughness elements opposed the flow. The second condition consisted of a pitched baseball with four of the roughness elements opposing the flow. The third consisted of a pitched uniformly rough sphere. The conclusions were that roughness elements increase horizontal flight deviations when a baseball rotates about a vertical axis; roughness elements on the surface of a baseball may cause a decrease in the encountered drag forces; linear velocity has a dominating effect on the trajectory of a spinning baseball; previously developed mathematical models do not adequately predict flight deviations.

In recent years investigators have given increased attention to flow in natural, high-gradient, rough, open channels. Studies include work in both the laboratory and in the field. Solutions to the problem are still incomplete; however, continued attention by investigators is needed to answer many questions. Using a laboratory flume, the writer studied one of the questions concerning the relative importance of gross velocity fluctuations versus turbulent mixing, and the ranges of each under different ranges of submergence and kineticity of flow. In the different ranges, the effect of size and concentration of the roughness elements was studied.

Laminar flow control has been studied for several decades in an effort to achieve higher efficiencies for aircraft. Successful implementation of laminar flow control technology on transport aircraft could significantly reduce drag and increase operating efficiency and range. However, the crossflow instability present on swept-wing boundary layers has been a chief hurdle in the design of laminar wings. The use of spanwise-periodic discrete roughness elements (DREs) applied near the leading edge of a swept-wing typical of a transport aircraft represents a promising technique able to control crossflow and delay transition to accomplish the goal of increased laminar flow. Recently, the Flight Research Laboratory at Texas A&M University conducted an extensive flight test study using DREs on a swept-wing model at chord Reynolds numbers in the range of eight million. The results of this study indicated DREs were able to double the laminar flow on the model, pushing transition back to 60 percent chord. With the successful demonstration of DRE technology at these lower chord Reynolds numbers, the next logical step is to extend the technology to higher Reynolds numbers in the range of 15 to 20 million typical of smaller transport aircraft. To conduct the flight tests at the higher Reynolds numbers, DREs will be placed on a wing glove attached to the aircraft wing. However, a feasibility study was necessary before initiating the flight-testing. First, a suitable aircraft able to achieve the Reynolds numbers and accommodate a wing glove was identified. Next, a full CFD analysis of the aircraft was performed to determine any adverse effects on the wing flow-field from the aircraft engines. This required an accurate CAD model of the selected aircraft. Proper modeling techniques were needed to represent the effects of the aircraft engine. Once sufficient CFD results were obtained, they were used as guidance for the placement of the glove. The attainable chord Reynolds numbers based on the recommendations for the wing glove placement then determined if the selected aircraft was suitable for the flight-testing.

<p dir="ltr">The Boeing/AFOSR Mach-6 Quiet Tunnel (BAM6QT) was used for a set of experiments studying the effect of isolated roughness elements on boundary-layer transition on a 7° half-angle cone. In quiet flow, the cone was tested at Reynolds numbers of 7.4 × 10e6 /m, 10.2 × 10e6 /m, and 13.0 × 10e6 /m. Tests were also completed at Re = 11.0 × 10e6 /m in noisy flow to examine the effects of freestream noise. The cone was set at both 0° and 6° angle of attack and an isolated, square trip oriented like a diamond with respect to the flow direction was attached before each set of runs. </p><p dir="ltr">Using infrared thermography and pressure transducers, the location of transition onset was estimated for each test. The results followed all expected trends: transition moved upstream as trip height increased, transition occurred earlier at higher freestream Reynolds numbers, and transition was significantly delayed in quiet flow compared to noisy flow. Mean flow solutions were generated to calculate correlation values commonly used to predict transition. Theexperimentaldatawasthenusedinconjunctionwiththesecorrelationvalues to identify a range of critical values that could be used to predict transition behavior. </p><p dir="ltr">Additionally, a z-type schlieren setup was developed for the BAM6QT. Various components were upgraded and standard procedures for aligning the system were developed. A new pulsed laser and high-speed camera were integrated into the system to enable schlieren imaging at up to 1.75M fps. The final configuration allows the schlieren system to be used for various applications with minimal adjustments, and has been utilized in many research projects in the BAM6QT.</p>

<p dir="ltr">Experiments were performed in the Boeing/AFOSR Mach-6 Quiet Tunnel to study the effect of flight-derived discrete roughness elements repeated in an axisymmetric pattern near the nose of a sharp 7° cone. The aim of the roughness array was to simulate natural vehicle roughness and attempt to introduce a deterministic roughness pattern with the ability to cancel out the instabilities caused by the natural roughness. The cone was pitched at a 6° of attack to determine the three-dimensional flow field effects of the roughness elements. Tests were also ran at 0° of attack for comparison. Quiet flow testing included the designed-for freestream unit Reynolds number of 10.8x10⁶, and Reynolds numbers above and below. In noisy flow, comparable Reynolds numbers were also tested at to isolate the effects of noise in a conventional flow wind tunnel.</p><p dir="ltr">Infrared thermography and surface pressure sensors were used to document the behavior of the boundary layer. It was found that the roughness pattern was in general unsuccessful in controlling the added boundary layer instabilities as intended at 6° of attack, but it did create different instability amplitudes and heating patterns. Additionally, it was determined to reduce Mack's second-mode instability amplitudes at 0° of attack.</p><p dir="ltr">Additionally, work was done to document and characterize the roughness patterns found on samples of hypersonic glide vehicles PRIME (SV-5D or X-23) and ASSET (ASV-3). These samples were taken in the form of molded impressions of the surface which were able to be analyzed with an optical profilometer and considered for future experimental distributed roughness studies.</p>

The aerodynamic benefits of laminar flow have long made it a sought-after attribute in aircraft design. By laminarizing portions of an aircraft, such as the wing or empennage, significant reductions in drag could be achieved, reducing fuel burn rate and increasing range. In addition to environmental benefits, the economic implications of improved fuel efficiency could be substantial due to the upward trend of fuel prices. This is especially true for the commercial aviation industry, where fuel usage is high and fuel expense as a percent of total operating cost is high. Transition from laminar to turbulent flow can be caused by several different transition mechanisms, but the crossflow instability present in swept-wing boundary layers remains the primary obstacle to overcome. One promising technique that could be used to control the crossflow instability is the use of spanwise-periodic discrete roughness elements (DREs). The Flight Research Laboratory (FRL) at Texas A&M University has already shown that an array of DREs can successfully delay transition beyond its natural location in flight at chord Reynolds numbers of 8.0x10^6. The next step is to apply DRE technology at Reynolds numbers between 20x10^6 and 30x10^6, characteristic of transport aircraft. NASA's Environmentally Responsible Aviation Project has sponsored a transonic laminar-flow wing glove experiment further exploring the capabilities of DRE technology. The experiment will be carried out jointly by FRL, the NASA Langley Research Center, and the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center. Upon completion of a wing glove design, a thorough computational evaluation was necessary to determine if the design can meet the experimental requirements. First, representative CAD models of the testbed aircraft and wing glove were created. Next, a computational grid was generated employing these CAD models. Following this step, full-aircraft CFD flowfield calculations were completed at a variety of flight conditions. Finally, these flowfield data were used to perform boundary-layer stability calculations for the wing glove. Based on the results generated by flowfield and stability calculations, conclusions and recommendations regarding design effectiveness were made, providing guidance for the experiment as it moved beyond the design phase.

Στην παρούσα εργασία μελετάται αριθμητικά η ροή σε σήραγγα υπό συνθήκες ελεύθερης επιφάνειας και έντονης κλίσης πυθμένα 1:10. Διερευνάται η δυνατότητα μείωσης της ταχύτητας ροής μέσω κατακόρυφων, πλευρικών στοιχείων τραχύτητας. Συγκεκριμένα γίνεται τρισδιάστατη προσομοίωση της ροής με χρήση του μοντέλου ANSYS – Fluent και τα αποτελέσματα συγκρίνονται με εκείνα που προέκυψαν από αντίστοιχο πείραμα που πραγματοποιήθηκε στο Εργαστήριο Υδραυλικής Μηχανικής του Τμήματος Πολιτικών Μηχανικών του Πανεπιστημίου Πατρών. Αφορμή για το συγκεκριμένο σχεδιασμό αποτέλεσε η διερεύνηση της εκτροπής των πλημμυρικών παροχών από ορεινή λεκάνη σε κατάντη ταμιευτήρα μέσω σήραγγας και συγκεκριμένα από το οροπέδιο Λασιθίου στον ταμιευτήρα του φράγματος Αποσελεμή. Με δεδομένα τα ανωτέρω, επιθυμείται να αποφευχθεί η κατασκευή βαθμίδων ή στοιχείων τραχύτητας στον πυθμένα και, επομένως, απαιτείται η μόρφωση «πτυχώσεων» στα τοιχώματα έτσι ώστε να αναπτυχθεί δευτερογενής ροή και με εισρόφηση αέρα. Η αποτελεσματικότητα του σχεδιασμού διερευνήθηκε σε υδραυλικό ομοίωμα κλίμακας 1:12.5 που βασίσθηκε σε συνθήκες δυναμικής ομοιότητας κατά Froude για χαρακτηριστικές τιμές παροχής. Η επεξεργασία των μετρήσεων έδειξε ότι με κατάλληλη διάταξη πλευρικών στοιχείων τραχύτητας ελέγχεται η τιμή της ταχύτητας και ικανοποιείται η απαίτηση μεγίστου βάθους ροής σε σχέση με τις διαστάσεις της σήραγγας. Για την υπολογιστική επίλυση του προβλήματος αξιοποιήθηκαν οι εξισώσεις Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS), ενώ για το κλείσιμο της τύρβης χρησιμοποιήθηκε το μοντέλο δυο εξισώσεων k-ω, το οποίο επεξηγείται αναλυτικά. Η διαχείριση της ελεύθερης επιφάνειας έγινε με τη μέθοδο Volume of Fluid (VOF), ενώ η αριθμητική επίλυση βασίστηκε στη μέθοδο των πεπερασμένων όγκων και πραγματοποιήθηκε με το υπολογιστικό πακέτο Fluent CFD της ANSYS inc. Για την ροή στον υπό εξέταση αγωγό η ροή είναι υπερκρίσιμη με κλίση πυθμένα S_0=0.10. Για λόγους ελέγχου της ακρίβειας της αριθμητικής μεθόδου που χρησιμοποιήθηκε, αρχικά επιλύθηκε η περίπτωση τρισδιάστατου καναλιού ορθογωνικής διατομής χωρίς πλευρικά στοιχεία τραχύτητας και τα αποτελέσματα που προέκυψαν συγκρίθηκαν με αναλυτικά αποτελέσματα μονοδιάστατης ροής (κατακόρυφο επίπεδο) υπεράνω επίπεδου πυθμένα. Τα αποτελέσματα βρέθηκαν σε καλή συμφωνία μεταξύ τους, γεγονός που επιβεβαίωσε την καταλληλότητα της μεθόδου. Για το τρισδιάστατο πρόβλημα με τα κατακόρυφα πλευρικά στοιχεία τραχύτητας, η ανάλυση έδειξε ότι το διάμηκες προφίλ της ελεύθερης επιφάνειας παρουσιάζει κυματισμούς σε όλη την περιοχή των στοιχείων τραχύτητας. Το βάθος ροής κατέρχεται σταδιακά από το αρχικό κρίσιμο βάθος μέχρι να φθάσει στο επίπεδο του βάθους των 0.06 m, το οποίο δεν είναι το ομοιόμορφο βάθος αφού η ροή συνεχίζει να επιταχύνεται. Επιπροσθέτως, παρατηρήθηκε η δημιουργία μιας περιοχής ανακυκλοφορίας της ροής ανάμεσα στα πλευρικά στοιχεία τραχύτητας. Τα αποτελέσματα που πρόεκυψαν από το αριθμητικό μοντέλο συγκρίθηκαν με τα πειραματικά αποτελέσματα και η συμφωνία μεταξύ αριθμητικών προβλέψεων και πειραματικών δεδομένων είναι ιδιαίτερα ικανοποιητική. / A three-dimensional CFD numerical model has been utilized to simulate the 3D free-surface flow under supercritical flow conditions in a 10% sloping channel over vertical roughness elements on the side walls. The effectiveness of vertical roughness elements on the side walls is investigated, with the aim to reduce flow velocity in the tunnel. The program, ANSYS Fluent, solves the Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations on an unstructured five-hedral grid using PISO method and the flow is treated as steady while the k-omega model is used as turbulence model. The numerical simulation has been based on the Volume of Fluid method (VOF) approach. Available experimental measurements of the free-surface in a sloping channel, under various supercritical flow regimes, have been used to validate the proposal numerical methodology. These experiments were conducted at the Hydraulic Engineering Laboratory of the Civil Engineering Department, University of Patras. In all test cases the 3D numerical model gives reasonable comparisons with measurements for the water depth.

Turbulent flow and transition are some of the most important phenomena of fluid mechanics and aerodynamics and represent a challenging engineering problem for aircraft manufacturers looking to improve aerodynamic efficiency. Laminar flow technology has the potential to provide a significant reduction to aircraft drag by manipulating the instabilities within the laminar boundary layer to achieve a delay in transition to turbulence. Currently prediction and simulation of laminar-turbulent transition is con- ducted using either a low-fidelity approach involving the stability equations or via a full Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS). The work in this thesis uses an alternative high-fidelity simulation method that aims to bridge the gap between the two simulation streams. The methodology uses an LES approach with a low-computational cost sub-grid scale model (WALE) that has inherent ability to reduce its turbulent viscosity contribution to zero in laminar regions. With careful grid spacing the laminar regions can be explicitly modelled as an unsteady Navier-Stokes simulation while the turbulent and transitional regions are simulated using LES. The methodology has been labelled as an unsteady Navier-Stokes/Large Eddy Simulation (UNS/LES) approach. Two test cases were developed to test the applicability of the method to simulate and control the crossflow instability. The first test case replicated the setup from an experiment that ran at a chord-based Reynolds number of 390, 000. Two methods were used to generate the initial disturbance for the crossflow vortices, firstly using a continuous suction hole and secondly an isolated roughness element. The results for this test case showed that the approach was capable of modelling the full transition process, from explicitly modelling the growth of the initial amplitude of the disturbances to final breakdown to turbulence. Results matched well with the available experimental data. The second test case replicated an experimental setup using a custom- designed aerofoil run at a chord-based Reynolds number of 2.4 million. The test case used Distributed Roughness Elements (DRE) to induce crossflow vortices at both a critical and a control wavelength. By forcing the crossflow vortices at a stable (control) wavelength a delay in laminar-turbulent transition can be achieved. The results showed that the UNS/LES approach was capable of capturing the initial disturbance amplitudes due to the roughness elements and their growth rates matched well with experimental data. Finally, downstream a transitional region was assessed with low-freestream turbulence provided using a modified Synthetic Eddy Method (SEM). The full laminar-turbulent transition pro- cess was simulated and results showed significant promise. In conclusion, the method employed in this thesis showed promising results and demonstrated a possible route to high-fidelity transition simulation run at more realistic flow conditions and geometries than DNS. Further work and validation is required to test the secondary instability region and the final breakdown to turbulence.

Modeling the effects of surface roughness is an area of concern in many practical engineering applications. Many current roughness models to this point have involved the use of empirical 'constants' and equivalent sand grain roughness. These underdeveloped concepts have little direct relationship to realistic roughness and cannot predict accurately and consistently the flow characteristics for different roughness shapes. In order to aid in the development of turbulence models, the present research is centered around the experimental investigation of seven various shaped single roughness elements and their effects on turbulence quantities in a two-dimensional turbulent boundary layer. The elements under scrutiny are as follows: cone, cone with spatial variations equal to the smallest sublayer structure length scale, cone with spatial variations equal to 2.5 times the smallest sublayer structure length scale, Gaussian-shaped element, hemisphere, cube aligned perpendicular to the flow (cube at 90&#176;), and a cube rotated 45&#176; relative to the flow. The roughness element heights, k+, non-dimensionalized by the friction velocity (U_tau) of the approaching turbulent boundary layer, are 145, 145, 145, 145, 80, 98, and 98 respectively. Analysis of a three-dimensional fetch of the same Gaussian-shaped elements described previously was also undertaken. In order to analyze the complex flow fields, detailed measurements were obtained using a fine-measurement-volume (50 micron diameter) three-velocity component laser-Doppler velocimetry (LDV) system. The data reveals the formation of a horseshoe vortex in front of the element, which induces the downwash of higher momentum fluid toward the wall. This 'sweep' motion not only creates high Reynolds stresses (v^2, w^2, -uv) downstream of the element, but also leads to higher skin-friction drag. Triple products were also found to be very significant near the height of the element. These parameters are important in regards to the contribution of the production and diffusion of the turbulent kinetic energy in the flow. The 'peakiness' of the roughness element was found to have a direct correlation to the production of circulation, whereas the spatial smoothing does not have an immense effect on this parameter. The peaked elements were found to have a similar trend in the decay of circulation in the streamwise direction. These elements tend to show a decay proportional to (x/d)^-1.12, whereas the cube elements and the hemisphere do not have a common trend. A model equation is proposed for a drag correlation common to all roughness elements. This equation takes into account the viscous drag and pressure drag terms in the calculation of the actual drag due to the roughness elements presence in the boundary layer. The size, shape, frontal and wetted surface areas of the roughness elements are related to one another via this model equation. Flow drawings related to each element are presented which gives rise to a deeper understanding of the physics of the flow associated with each roughness element. / Master of Science