Thermally induced phase transformation in NiTi shape memory alloys (SMA) shows strong size and shape, collectively termed length scale effects, at the nano to micrometer scales, and that has important implications for the design and use of devices and structures at such scales. This paper, based on a recently developed multiscale model that utilizes molecular dynamics (MD) simulations at small scales and MD-verified phase field (PhF) simulations at larger scales, reports results on specific length scale effects, i.e. length scale effects in martensite phase fraction evolution, transformation temperatures (martensite and austenite start and finish) and in the thermally cyclic transformation between austenitic and martensitic phase. The multiscale study identifies saturation points for length scale effects and studies, for the first time, the length scale effect on the kinetics (i.e. developed internal strains) in the B19 phase during phase transformation. The major part of the work addresses small scale single crystals in specific orientations. However, the multiscale method is used in a unique and novel way to indirectly study length scale and grain size effects on evolution kinetics in polycrystalline NiTi, and to compare the simulation results to experiments. The interplay of the grain size and the length scale effect on the thermally induced martensite phase fraction (MPF) evolution is also shown in this present study. Finally, the multiscale coupling results are employed to improve phenomenological material models for NiTi SMA.

As brechas vulcanoclásticas massivas correspondem a maciços rochosos de fragmentos vulcânicos geralmente imersos numa matriz mais fina que estão caraterizadas por apresentar baixo fraturamento ou ausência de descontinuidades. Embora as brechas vulcânicas massivas sejam de baixa resistência, possuem condições mecânicas que permitem escavar taludes altos ou túneis moderadamente profundos mostrando comportamentos estáveis. Neste trabalho foi estudado um afloramento de brechas vulcânicas da zona Pacífica Central da Costa Rica, com o objetivo de caracterizar mecanicamente a rocha. Avaliou-se a influência dos clastos nas propriedades globais de resistência e deformação. Estudou-se também o fraturamento progressivo e o efeito escala sobre as propriedades mecânicas da rocha sob carregamentos de compressão uniaxial e diametral. Caracterizaram-se os constituintes da brecha vulcanoclástica e a relação da proporção e a distribuição dos tamanhos de blocos para as escalas de afloramento e de laboratório. Mostram-se as propriedades mecânicas dos blocos e da matriz, avaliando-se o contraste mecânico existente e a influência na resistência e deformabilidade da brecha. A resistência à compressão e o módulo de deformação da brecha obtidos nos ensaios de laboratório não apresentaram influência significativa com a variação da porcentagem de blocos entre 10% até 65%. A coesão mostra um decréscimo entre o 7%-19%, e o ângulo de atrito aumentou 1.1° e diminuiu 2.6° com o acréscimo da porcentagem volumétrico de clastos de 25% para 50%. Em termos comparativos com outras rochas similares, a brecha analisada apresenta pouca influência mecânica significativa dos blocos. Quanto ao processo de fraturamento no ensaio de compressão axial e diametral, mostram-se os tipos curva completas dos ensaios e sua relação com a emissão acústica (EA) e inspeções visuais. Realizaram-se observações do microfissuramento preexistente e do obtido ao longo do ensaio de compressão diametral, mediante ensaios de microtomografia de rádio X (μCT). De acordo com as observações nos ensaios de microtomografia, a propagação das fissuras é tortuosa e preferencial nos contornos dos clastos. Ocasionalmente, as fissuras podem cortar alguns blocos de densidade superior à matriz sem se perceberem mudanças na curva de força deslocamento ou acréscimos de resistência. Na inspeção macro dos testemunhos carregados, as trajetórias do fraturamento percorrem a matriz da rocha, a interface blocos-matriz, ou o interior dos blocos. O efeito escala sobre o comportamento mecânico foi estudado para amostras de diâmetro de 31 até 145 mm. A brecha vulcânica estudada se considera como uma rocha pouco fissurada e não apresenta efeito escala na resistência à compressão e tração, no comportamento da curva completa de compressão uniaxial, no módulo de deformação, no coeficiente de Poisson ou no fator de intensidade de tensão crítico. As curvas de força versus deslocamento horizontal no ensaio de compressão diametral apresentam comportamentos mais dúcteis para as amostras pequenas e tendências mais frágeis em tamanho maior. Finalmente o trabalho apresenta o caso de estudo de brechas vulcânicas massivas escavadas no túnel de condução da usina hidroelétrica Cachí na Costa Rica. Mostram-se a caracterização do maciço, a comparação comportamento teórico esperado da escavação comparado com o real percebido e as experiências da produtividade de escavação com métodos com explosivos e fresadora. / Massive volcanoclastic breccias are rock masses of volcanic fragments generally immerse in a fine matrix, and they are characterized by little or no presence of jointing. Despite massive volcanoclastic breccias being soft rock, they have mechanic conditions that allow them to be excavated in high slopes and moderately deep tunnels that present stable behavior. Volcanoclastic breccias of the Central Pacific of Costa Rica were studied for this dissertation aiming at mechanically characterizing this type of rock. The influence of the proportion of clasts was evaluated on the global properties of resistance and deformation. In addition, the progressive fracture process and the scale effect were studied focusing on the mechanical properties under uniaxial and diametrical compression loading. The constituents, the proportion and size distribution of clasts were characterized for outcrop and laboratory scales. The mechanical properties of blocks and the matrix are presented evaluating the mechanical contrast and the influence on the strength and deformability of the breccia. The compressive strength and the deformation modulus obtained in the laboratory testing do not present significance influence when the block proportion measured in the breccia rock cores changed varying from 10% to 60%. The cohesion decreased between a 7% and a 19% and the friction angle increased with the increment of the volumetric proportion blocks from 25% to 50%. The volcanoclastic breccias analyzed exhibit little influence of the mechanical properties of the blocks when compared to other similar rocks. When discussing the fracturing process in uniaxial and diametral compression test, the dissertation presents the types of complete curves and their relationship to acoustic emissions (AE) and visual observations. There are remarks of preexistent micro-fissuring and the fracturing status obtained in the diametral compression test by the ray-X micro tomography technique (μCT). In line with the observations in the micro tomography tests, the crack propagation path is tortuous preferably going through the surface of the clasts. Occasionally, the fracture can split some blocks denser than the matrix without changes in the force-horizontal displacement curve nor in the resistance. The fracture path goes through the matrix of the rock, the interface between the rock and the matrix and even the blocks. The scale effect in the mechanical behavior was studied in cores ranging from 31 mm to 145 mm of diameter. The volcanoclastic breccias are considered as a lightly fissured rock, and they do not present scale effect in the compressive and tensile strength, the deformation modulus, the complete curve behavior over the uniaxial compressional test, the Poisson´s ratio, and the critical fracture toughness. The complete force-horizontal displacement curves in the diametral compression test display ductile behaviors in the smaller diameters, and a trend of fragile behavior in bigger samples. Finally, this dissertation presents the study case of massive volcanic breccias excavated in the pressure tunnel of the Cachí hydroelectric project in Costa Rica. The characterization of the rock mass, a comparison of the excavation expected theoretical behavior with the real behavior and the experience of the excavation performance with the conventional methods and the roadheader mechanical methods are presented.

O objetivo do presente trabalho é a aplicação da teoria fractal na quantificação de perfis de rugosidade de juntas rochosas. Para esta quantificação digitalizaram-se perfis de rugosidade encontrados na literatura e posteriormente determinou-se a dimensão fractal de cada perfil utilizando três métodos. Dentre estes, estabeleceu-se que o método modificado do divisor é o mais adequado para determinar a dimensão fractal. Verificou-se também a importância do parâmetro de intersecção, que também pode quantificar o perfil de rugosidade. De uma análise comparativa se estabeleceu que o parâmetro de intersecção quantifica melhor o perfil que a dimensão fractal. Para uso prático, este parâmetro foi adimensionalizado e o novo parâmetro foi denominado como peso fractal. Este último junto com a dimensão fractal quantificam melhor o perfil de rugosidade. Avaliou-se também o comportamento da dimensão fractal, parâmetro de intersecção e peso fractal no efeito escala da rugosidade. Estes têm uma dependência do comprimento do perfil. / The purpose of the present work is the application of the fractal theory to the quantification of rock joint roughness. Rock joint roughness profiles available in the literature were digitized in order to allow quantitative analysis. The fractal dimension was determined for each profile using three different methods. Among those methods, it was found that the modified divider method is the most adequate. The importance of the intercept parameter was also found for the fractal dimension determination and roughness quantification. Based on a comparative analysis, the intercept parameter was found to be better for roughness quantification than the fractal dimension. For practical purposes, a dimensionless form of the intercept parameter was established. The new parameter was called the fractal weight. The joint use of both fractal dimension and fractal weight was found to be the most effective way to quantify rock joint roughness profiles. The influence of the three mentioned parameters on joint strength scale effect was also analyzed.

The majority of dams contain low-level outlet works, which typically consist of closed conduits that run through the dam, and are used to release water from the reservoir when the water level is below the level of the surface spillways. It is also used to flush the reservoir of sediments and to control the elevation of the reservoir. Low-level outlet works typically consist of a gate that controls the flow within a closed conduit that runs through the dam and an air vent that supplies air behind the gate. In the absence of properly designed air vents, negative pressures may develop downstream of the gate. These negative pressures could potentially lead to cavitation and vibration damage. Properly sized air vents help maintain the downstream air pressure at or near atmospheric pressure and/or provide air to absorb the energy generated by cavitation, reducing the potential for damage. The majority of research done on air vent sizing is for dams having large dam geometry, which consist of a pressurized conduit leading to a vertical slide gate that is followed by a discharge tunnel. The typical air vent design for these large dams uses the water flow rate and the Froude number measured at the vena contracta downstream of the gate. The low-level outlet works for small-to-medium-sized embankment dam geometries typically have an inclined slide gate, installed at the inlet on the upstream face of the dam slope, followed by an elbow that connects to a conduit that passes through the dam and discharges downstream. This type of outlet geometry does not produce the typical vena contracta. Consequently, the use of the Froude number, at the vena contracta , as a characteristic parameter for characterizing airflow demand is not practical. Recently a laboratory study was performed calculating the head-discharge characteristics of low-level outlets for small-to-medium sized dam geometries. In addition to validating some of the previous laboratory-scale air venting research, the objective of this study was field verification of air-demand/air vent sizing predicted by the laboratory-based method. The influence of conduit slope, air port location, and hydraulic jumps on air demand was also evaluated in the laboratory. The findings of this study can be found within this thesis.

The majority of dams contain low-level outlet works, which typically consist of closed conduits that run through the dam, and are used to release water from the reservoir when the water level is below the level of the surface spillways. It is also used to flush the reservoir of sediments and to control the elevation of the reservoir. Low-level outlet works typically consist of a gate that controls the flow within a closed conduit that runs through the dam and an air vent that supplies air behind the gate. In the absence of properly designed air vents, negative pressures may develop downstream of the gate. These negative pressures could potentially lead to cavitation and vibration damage. Properly sized air vents help maintain the downstream air pressure at or near atmospheric pressure and/or provide air to absorb the energy generated by cavitation, reducing the potential for damage. The majority of research done on air vent sizing is for dams having large dam geometry, which consist of a pressurized conduit leading to a vertical slide gate that is followed by a discharge tunnel. The typical air vent design for these large dams uses the water flow rate and the Froude number measured at the vena contracta downstream of the gate. The low-level outlet works for small-to-medium-sized embankment dam geometries typically have an inclined slide gate, installed at the inlet on the upstream face of the dam slope, followed by an elbow that connects to a conduit that passes through the dam and discharges downstream. This type of outlet geometry does not produce the typical vena contracta. Consequently, the use of the Froude number, at the vena contracta , as a characteristic parameter for characterizing airflow demand is not practical. Recently a laboratory study was performed calculating the head-discharge characteristics of low-level outlets for small-to-medium sized dam geometries. In addition to validating some of the previous laboratory-scale air venting research, the objective of this study was field verification of air-demand/air vent sizing predicted by the laboratory-based method. The influence of conduit slope, air port location, and hydraulic jumps on air demand was also evaluated in the laboratory. The findings of this study can be found within this thesis.

The aim of this experimental study was to investigate the hydraulic conditions at which air-entraining vortices would form in front of horizontal intakes and to determine the ways of eliminating the formation of these vortices by testing anti-vortex devices. For these reasons, a series of experiments were conducted in an experimental setup composed of a reservoir having the dimensions of 3.10 m x 3.10 m x 2.20 m and a pump connected to the intake pipe. Within the reservoir, between the concrete side walls adjustable plexiglass side walls were placed to provide the desired wall clearance for the intake pipes. Six pipes of different diameters / 5 cm, 10 cm, 14.4 cm, 19.4 cm, 25 cm and 30 cm were horizontally mounted on the front side of the reservoir one by one, and for each case, a wide range of discharges was provided from the reservoir by the pump. Under symmetrical approach flow conditions and zero bottom wall clearance, the experiments were repeated for each intake pipe and the &ldquo / critical submergence depths&rdquo / for the tested discharges were determined. At some of the discharges, the effect of horizontal plates located on the top of the pipe entrance as anti-vortex devices on the elimination of the vortices was investigated. The measured critical submergence depths were related in dimensionless form to the relevant dimensionless parameters and empirical equations were derived. These equations were compared with similar ones available in the literature and it was shown that the agreement between them was quite good.

Aluminium alloys with Si as the major alloying element form a class of material providing the most significant part of all casting manufactured materials. These alloys have a wide range of applications in the automotive and aerospace industries due to an excellent combination of castability and mechanical properties, as well as good corrosion resistance and wear resistivity. Additions of minor alloying elements such as Cu and Mg improve the mechanical properties and make the alloy responsive to heat treatment. The aim of this work is studying the role of size and morphology of microstructural constituents (e.g SDAS, Si-particles and intermetalics) on mechanical properties of Al-Si based casting alloy at room temperatures up to 500 ºC. The cooling rate controls the secondary dendrite arm spacing (SDAS), size and distribution of secondary phases. As SDAS becomes smaller, porosity and second phase constituents are dispersed more finely and evenly. This refinement of the microstructure leads to substantial improvement in tensile properties (e.g. Rm and εF). Addition of about 280 ppm Sr to EN AC- 46000 alloy yields fully modified Si-particles (from coarse plates to fine fibres) regardless of the cooling conditions. Depression in eutectic growth temperature as a result of Sr addition was found to be strongly correlated to the level of modification irrespective of coarseness of microstructure. Modification treatment can improve elongation to failure to a great extent as long as the intermetallic compounds are refined in size. Above 300 ºC, tensile strength, Rp0.2 and Rm, of EN AC-46000 alloys are dramatically degraded while the ductility was increased. The fine microstructure (SDAS 10 μm) has superior Rm and ductility compared to the coarse microstructure (SDAS 25 μm) at all test temperature (from room to 500 ºC). Concentration of solutes (e.g. Cu and Mg) in the dendrites increases at 300 ºC and above where Rp0.2 monotonically decreased. The brittleness of the alloy below 300 ºC was related to accumulation of a high volume fraction damaged particles such as Cu- Fe-bearing phases and Si-particles. The initiation rate of damage in the coarse particles was significantly higher, which enhances the probability of failure and decreasing both Rm and εF compared to the fine microstructure. A physically-based model was adapted, improved and validated in order to predict the flow stress behaviour of EN AC- 46000 cast alloys at room temperature up to 400 ºC for various microstructures. The temperature dependant variables of the model were quite well correlated to the underlying physics of the material

Magnesium and magnesium alloys are used in a wide variety of structural applications including automotive, aerospace, hand tools and electronic industries thanks to their light weight, high specific strength, adequate corrosion resistance and good castability. Al and Zn are the primary alloying elements in commercial Mg alloys and commonly used in automotive industries. AZ91 is one of the most popular Mg alloys containing 9% Al and 1% Zn. Hence, lots of research have been done during last decades on AZ91D. However, the existing data concerning mechanical properties and microstructural features showed large scatter and is even contradictory. This work focused on the correlation between the microstructure and the mechanical properties of as-cast AZ91 alloy. An exhaustive characterization of the grain size, secondary dendrite arm spacing (SDAS) distribution, and fraction of Mg17Al12 using optical and electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) was performed. These microstructural parameters were correlated to offset yield point (Rp0.2), fracture strength and elongation to fracture. It was understood that the intermetallic phase, Mg17Al12, plays an important role in determining the mechanical and physical properties of the alloy at temperature range from room temperature up to 190oC. It was realized that by increasing the Mg17Al12 content above 11% a network of intermetallic may form. During deformation this rigid network should break before any plastic deformation happen. Hence, increase in Mg17Al12 content resulted in an increase in offset yield point. The presence of this network was supported by study of thermal expansion behaviour of the alloy containing different amount of Mg17Al12. A physically-based model was adapted and validated in order to predict the flow stress behaviour of as-cast AZ91D at room temperature up to 190ºC for various microstructures. The model was based on dislocation glide and climb in a single-phase (matrix) material containing reinforcing particles. The temperature dependant variables of the model were quite well correlated to the underlying physics of the material.

O objetivo do presente trabalho é a aplicação da teoria fractal na quantificação de perfis de rugosidade de juntas rochosas. Para esta quantificação digitalizaram-se perfis de rugosidade encontrados na literatura e posteriormente determinou-se a dimensão fractal de cada perfil utilizando três métodos. Dentre estes, estabeleceu-se que o método modificado do divisor é o mais adequado para determinar a dimensão fractal. Verificou-se também a importância do parâmetro de intersecção, que também pode quantificar o perfil de rugosidade. De uma análise comparativa se estabeleceu que o parâmetro de intersecção quantifica melhor o perfil que a dimensão fractal. Para uso prático, este parâmetro foi adimensionalizado e o novo parâmetro foi denominado como peso fractal. Este último junto com a dimensão fractal quantificam melhor o perfil de rugosidade. Avaliou-se também o comportamento da dimensão fractal, parâmetro de intersecção e peso fractal no efeito escala da rugosidade. Estes têm uma dependência do comprimento do perfil. / The purpose of the present work is the application of the fractal theory to the quantification of rock joint roughness. Rock joint roughness profiles available in the literature were digitized in order to allow quantitative analysis. The fractal dimension was determined for each profile using three different methods. Among those methods, it was found that the modified divider method is the most adequate. The importance of the intercept parameter was also found for the fractal dimension determination and roughness quantification. Based on a comparative analysis, the intercept parameter was found to be better for roughness quantification than the fractal dimension. For practical purposes, a dimensionless form of the intercept parameter was established. The new parameter was called the fractal weight. The joint use of both fractal dimension and fractal weight was found to be the most effective way to quantify rock joint roughness profiles. The influence of the three mentioned parameters on joint strength scale effect was also analyzed.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / In Hydrological rainfall-runoff models, rainfall is one of the main variables analyzed before being used as input data. However, its peculiar characteristics of occurrence make it challenging to measure, especially for developing countries, since it requires monitoring networks with high spatial and temporal resolutions. To overcome such problems, the use of remote sensing to estimate rainfall is being gradually diffused, with results considered of good reliability. In this sense, the objective was to evaluate the results generated by a rainfall-runoff modeling, using precipitation information estimated by the TRMM satellite, applied to four watersheds of different scales. To achieve this objective was used the concentrated model IPH II in the version for Windows® (WIN_IPH2 version 2, denominated in this work as WIPH2). In a first analysis, conducted for the watersheds of the rivers Turvo (1,540 km2), Ijuí (9,450 km2), Jacuí (38,700 km2) and Alto Uruguai (61,900 km2), which are located in southern Brazil, it was observed that the precipitation estimates provided by the TRMM satellite generated consistent spatialized mean rainfall in relation to the generated by rain gauges networks. Were found errors about 7.5% (Ijuí River watershed) to 15% (Turvo River, Jacuí River and Alto Uruguai watersheds). In overall, the daily mean rainfall, generated by the TRMM estimates, increased their correlation with the rain gauges information, as there was an increase in the watershed drainage area. In the modeling, it was noted that the WIPH2 showed good fit for the simulation of flows in the selected watersheds, with exception to the application in the Alto Uruguai watershed. In some cases, even though the mean rainfall estimated by the TRMM had generated greater uncertainty regarding the data generated by the different rain gauge networks, the model was able to compensate the deficiency of this information, by changing parameters within limits considered acceptable for the characteristics watershed. It was found that, in overall, precipitation estimated by the TRMM produced improvements in the flow evaluation coefficient (Nash-Sutcliffe NS, and correlation R coefficients), as there was an increase in the watershed drainage area until the Jacuí River watershed, with a decrease of the coefficients for the Alto Uruguai watershed, which was probably caused by the inadequacy of the WIPH2 concentrated model to the heterogeneous characteristics of the last watershed. In places with good rainfall monitoring coverage, the satellite estimates produced lower results than those generated by information measured by rain gauges. In places where the lack of equipment is accentuated and/or their distribution is non-uniform, the use of satellite estimates proved to be more reliable, reaching clearly superior results. In this sense, it was concluded that the TRMM satellite estimates may present as good alternatives to watersheds with scarce rainfall information measures on the ground, having great chances to show better results when compared to information of rain gauges scarce and poorly distributed. / Nos modelos hidrológicos chuva-vazão, a precipitação é uma das principais variáveis analisadas antes de ser utilizada como informação de entrada. Entretanto, suas características peculiares de ocorrência a tornam de mensuração desafiadora, principalmente para países em desenvolvimento, já que requer redes de monitoramento com elevadas resoluções espaciais e temporais. Para contornar tais problemas, o uso do sensoriamento remoto para estimar precipitações está sendo aos poucos difundido, com resultados considerados de boa confiabilidade. Neste sentido, objetivou-se avaliar os resultados gerados por uma modelagem chuva-vazão, utilizando-se de informações de precipitação estimadas pelo satélite TRMM, aplicada a quatro bacias hidrográficas de diferentes escalas. Para isso foi utilizado o modelo concentrado IPH II, na versão para Windows® (WIN_IPH2 versão 2, denominado neste trabalho como WIPH2). Em uma primeira análise, realizada para as bacias hidrográficas dos rios Turvo (1.540 km2), Ijuí (9.450 km2), Jacuí (38.700 km2) e Alto Uruguai (61.900 km2), localizadas na região sul do Brasil, observou-se que as estimativas de precipitação fornecidas pelo satélite TRMM geraram chuvas médias espacializadas consistentes em relação às geradas pelas redes de pluviômetros, apresentando erros de volume na ordem de 7,5% (bacia do Rio Ijuí) a 15% (bacias dos rios Turvo, Jacuí e Alto Uruguai). Em geral, as chuvas médias diárias, geradas pelas estimativas do TRMM, aumentaram suas correlações com as informações de pluviômetros, conforme houve um aumento da área de drenagem da bacia hidrográfica. Na modelagem, notou-se que o WIPH2 mostrou bom ajuste para a simulação das vazões nas bacias selecionadas, com ressalvas à aplicação na bacia do Alto Uruguai. Em alguns casos, mesmo que a precipitação média estimada pelo TRMM possuísse maior incerteza com relação aos dados gerados pelas diferentes redes de pluviômetros, o modelo conseguiu compensar a deficiência desta informação, por meio da alteração de parâmetros, dentro de limites considerados aceitáveis para as características das bacias hidrográficas. Verificou-se que, em geral, as precipitações estimadas pelo TRMM produziram melhoras no coeficiente de avaliação das vazões (coeficientes de Nash-Sutcliffe NS, e de correlação - R), à medida em que houve um aumento da área de drenagem da bacia hidrográfica até a bacia do Rio Jacuí, com decréscimo dos coeficientes para a bacia do Alto Uruguai, que provavelmente foi causado pela falta de adequação do modelo concentrado WIPH2 às características heterogêneas da última bacia. Em locais com boa cobertura de monitoramento pluviométrico, as estimativas de satélite produziram resultados inferiores aqueles gerados por informações mensuradas em solo; já em locais onde a escassez de equipamentos é acentuada e/ou sua distribuição é não-uniforme, a utilização de estimativas de satélite se mostrou mais confiável, chegando a resultados visivelmente superiores. Neste sentido, concluiu-se que as estimativas do satélite TRMM podem se apresentar como boas alternativas para bacias com escassez de informações de precipitação medidas em solo, tendo grandes chances de apresentarem melhores resultados quando comparadas com informações pontuais escassas e mal distribuídas.