During the second half of the 20th century there has been both a burgeoning intellectual interest in business and management as a topic and an exponential growth in the formal study of business and management as an academic subject. Indeed by the end of the century it was estimated that worldwide there were 8,000 business schools and more than 13 million students of business and management. In addition, it was estimated that worldwide annual expenditure on university level business and management education had reached US $15 billion (The Global Foundation for Management Education, 2008). However, despite this there is a lack of clarity regarding both the scale and the nature of the influence that academic scholarship exerts over managers. Accordingly this research study has sought to investigate the appropriation of ideas, theories, concepts and models by management practitioners. The thesis has reviewed and evaluated the two most obvious, most established and most influential potential explanations. These were diffusion of innovations (Rogers, 1962) and fashion theory (Abrahamson, 1991 & 1996; Abrahamson & Fairchild, 1999). It has been concluded that whilst both these potential explanations provided important insights, neither was able to provide a comprehensive theoretical foundation for this research study. Accordingly, a much broader range of pertinent scholarship was reviewed and evaluated. This included, but is not limited to, the scholarship that is associated with learning by adults (Dewey, 1933; Bartlett, 1967; Schank & Abelson, 1976; Mezirow, 1977). Although this additional scholarship provided a further range of potential explanations, the extent to which any of these would be found within the particular setting of management practitioners remained unclear. In addition, the literature review highlighted a number of unresolved debates regarding issues such as (i) whether management was a science or an applied science; (ii) whether it was a craft or a profession; (iii) whether in reality there were fashionable trends in management practice or whether in fact such practices were remarkably stable; and (iv) whether management theoreticians, gurus and consultants actually exerted significant influence over management practitioners. The literature review also highlighted methodological concerns relating to the use of citation analysis as a proxy for primary information regarding managerial practice. Hence, this research is situated in a gap which is delineated by the unresolved issues that are associated with both diffusion theory and fashion theory; the applicability of the broader range of scholarship to a management setting; the unresolved debates within this field of interest and the need to obtain primary information relating to management practice, rather than being dependant upon citation analysis. The research study has utilised qualitative data and inductive reasoning to examine these matters and the overarching research philosophy has been that of realism (Ritchie & Lewis, 2003). Ultimately, 39 semi-structured, recorded interviews were undertaken using the critical incident technique (Flanagan, 1954). Collectively these interviews lasted for 35 hours and obtained information relating to 160 critical incidents. The verbatim transcripts of the interviews totalled 350,000 words. A case study analysis of this data was undertaken to examine the decision making of the interviewees in relation to some of their most challenging managerial situations. This analysis concluded that for the ‘generality’ of these interviewees; theory played little, or no, overt part in their decision making. The data was also subjected to a content analysis using a bespoke compendium of 450 ‘terms’ that represented the development of theorising about management over the whole of the 20th century. This analysis concluded that the influence of the 20th century’s management theoreticians over these interviewees was weak. Finally, the possibility that any such influence might be a covert, rather than an overt; phenomenon was examined using both the insights of intertextuality (Allen, 2000; Bazerman, 2004) and the framework analysis technique (Ritchie, Spencer & O’Connor, 2003). This analysis demonstrated that the discourse, dialogue and language of these interviewees could be indexed to four domains; (i) the theoretical; (ii) the conceptual; (iii) the tactical; and (iv) the practical. The intertextual indexing outcomes were corroborated both by substantial extracts from the verbatim interview transcripts and by three unrelated strands of scholarship. These were (i) adaptive memory systems (Schacter, 2001); (ii) the realities of management (Carlson, 1954; Stewart, 1983; Mintzberg, 1989) and (iii) the role of concepts and conceptual thinking in nursing (McFarlane, 1977; Gordon, 1998; Orem, 2001). On this basis it has been concluded that management can be characterised as a conceptual discipline; that in its essential nature management is at least as conceptual as it is either theoretical or practical; and that managers appropriate concepts and ideas, rather than theories and models per se.

Professional identity is an ongoing process that evolves throughout the undergraduate years of study, and which will hopefully facilitate graduate school and vocational choices that match the student’s skills and sense of vocational calling. Professional Identity (PI), one form of social identity, has been described as the “attitudes, values, knowledge, beliefs, and skills that are shared with others within a professional group” (Adams et al., 2006, p. 56). Understanding the options and opportunities the chosen major may facilitate, allows for a good match between student interests and abilities and the potential career of choice. Developing a strong sense of professionalism is a key component within this process. Fields practiced by many NCFR members, including counseling and gerontology, are studying PI because of its links to important educational processes and outcomes. From the beginning of a student’s college education, PI or professional/vocational identity has been shown to relate to important educational processes and outcomes, including completion of a bachelor’s degree. After graduation, PI has been associated with reduced burnout, increased team functioning, and greater retention in fields such as nursing and related helping professions. These links are supported by Social Identity Theory, which suggests that PI shapes the attitudes and behaviors that can differentiate an individual from members of other professional groups, allowing improved collaborations and occupational flexibility. PI is also increasingly important to the work of Family Life Educators (FLEs) and the profession, as the PI of FLE’s becomes more distinct. For NCFR and for educational programs, studying PI seems wise to help promote FLE’s professional status and to encourage family life educators to remain engaged in the profession. Conference attendance can be used as an instructional tool to guide students towards greater professional identity. The increased need for inter-professional collaboration in delivery of services (e.g., family sciences) and the corresponding rise in inter-professional education, demand clear professional identity as an important training metric and goal. These links are supported by Social Identity Theory, which suggests that attitudes and behaviors can differentiate members of specific professional groups, allowing improved collaborations and occupational flexibility. In 2011, following attendance at a regional professional conference, family science students responded to a retrospective pre-test / post-test survey adapted from the Professional Identity Scale. In a two more recent studies within our school (2016 and 2017), it was found that family science students as well as Education majors, benefited from attendance of a professional conference. The implications for the scholarship of teaching and learning in Family Science, as well as Education, could be widespread. The implications for the scholarship of teaching and learning in family science could be widespread. For example, our results indicate that educational programs in family life education could benefit from regular assessment of PI throughout the curriculum. If PI is improved by specific educational practices, such as experiential and service learning opportunities and field placements, it might be possible to focus on improved PI as a path to improve recruitment and retention of students, as well as wider benefits apparent in our field.

Objectives: The objective was to determine the effect of podcasting, with resultant increased in-class active learning time, on student performance. Methods: In an effort to increase in-class active learning time and improve understanding of the material in a third-year pharmacotherapy course, podcasts were developed to cover specific topics and were made available outside-of-class for students in 2010. Students in the same course in the year 2009 had received identical in-class didactic instruction for these topics. End-of-course exam scores were adjusted using analysis of covariance and compared using the t-test. Results: The class averages on the end-of-course exams were significantly higher at 77.5 ± 1.2 (n = 65) for the class of 2009 compared to 72.9 ± 1.5 (n = 71) for the class of 2010 (p = 0.019). This difference remained significant after adjusting the 2009 and 2010 classes for the covariates. The difference between the classes was further magnified when using the covariate of GPA, 78.3 ± 1.2 compared to 72.2 ± 1.1 (p < 0.001) for the classes of 2009 and 2010, respectively. Rank ordering resulted in a significant difference in the exam grade in the lower 50th percentile 73.2 ± 1.6 (n = 34, 2009 class) compared to 65.8 ± 1.9 (n = 34, 2010 class), p = 0.004. No significant differences were noted between the two classes for those students in the upper 50th percentile. Conclusion: Increased in-class active learning time led to decreased examination scores for the lower 50th percentile of students in the 2010 cohort. One potential explanation is that students were not held accountable for completing the out-of-class preparatory exercises.

Objectives. To determine if student self-testing improves performance during a doctor of pharmacy course. Methods. Students were given access to online quizzes with a large pool of randomly selected questions specific to upcoming examination content. Quizzes were electronically scored immediately upon completion and students were provided corrective feedback. Results. Examination scores following implementation of the practice quizzes were significantly higher in all but the last testing period. The upper fiftieth percentile of students scored higher on both the practice quizzes and subsequent examinations in all but the fourth testing period. Conclusions. Providing pharmacy students with self-testing opportunities could increase their retention of course material and provide feedback to both students and educators regarding learning, as well as provide students with a measure of their metacognition.

Those of us involved in education – administrators, teachers, parents, students, specialists, policy makers and researchers – must decide on the level of rigour that will take place in our classrooms. Decisions based on the least dangerous assumption (LDA) are providing outstanding results. Donnellan (1984) famously wrote that “we should assume that poor performance is due to instructional inadequacy rather than to student deficits” (p 142). This philosophy has been the foundation of recent research into the access available to the general curriculum and practice in the classroom by individuals who have a wide range of ability levels. As a result, these studies have repeatedly yielded data showing students with a range disabilities can make gains in a variety of areas including grade-aligned content. This keynote presentation will highlight important criteria to promote LDA including: evidence-based practices with scientifically researched curricula and materials, differentiated instruction that maintains rigour, consistent data capture, and decision making standards-based instruction. Throughout this presentation, specific studies conducted to reinforce these criteria when LDA has been the foundation for this work will be highlighted. Special education has a rich history in advocating for the individual needs of students with disabilities. As we move into the rigour of providing standards-based instruction, we see how much more they are capable of, as well as an opportunity to increase quality of life. - See more at: http://sydney.edu.au/education_social_work/professional_learning/teachers/2016/major-events/successful-learning-conference.shtml#sthash.hTRDzYbP.dpuf

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Objective: To determine if the frequency of self-testing of course material prior to actual examination improves examination scores, regardless of the actual scores on the self-testing. Methods: Practice quizzes were randomly generated from a total of 1342 multiple-choice questions in pathophysiology and made available online for student self-testing. Intercorrelations, 2-way repeated measures ANOVA with post hoc tests, and 2-group comparisons following rank ordering, were conducted. Results: During each of 4 testing blocks, more than 85% of students took advantage of the self-testing process for a total of 7042 attempts. A consistent significant correlation (p≤0.05) existed between the number of practice quiz attempts and the subsequent examination scores. No difference in the number of quiz attempts was demonstrated compared to the first testing block. Exam scores for the first and second testing blocks were both higher than those for third and fourth blocks. Conclusion: Although self-testing strategies increase retrieval and retention, they are uncommon in pharmacy education. The results suggested that the number of self-testing attempts alone improved subsequent examination scores, regardless of the score for self-tests.

Objectives: To determine if benefit exists in allowing students to self-test over relevant material as they progress through a professional course. Method: A total of 1,342 multiple choice questions were developed for pharmacy students to self-test for a pathophysiology course. Prior to each examination, students were allowed to take online quizzes which were randomly generated and related to the exam content. Quizzes were scored immediately, and students were shown the incorrect questions along with all answer choices. A matrix of intercorrelations and repeated measures ANOVA were generated using PASW Statistics Version 19 (IBM, Armonk, NY) to evaluate number of quiz attempts, highest attempt score, lowest attempt score, average attempt score, last attempt score, undergraduate GPA, and composite PCAT in relation to exam grade. Results: Seventy-seven of 79 students took advantage of self-testing and completed a total of 7,042 attempts. For the four exams, average quiz attempts score had the highest correlation, R = 0.591, 0.670, 0.550, and 0.373 respectively, to exam score (p ≤ 0.001 for each comparison). For each student who took advantage of self-testing, a paired analysis revealed exam score was significantly higher on the first three exams when compared with quiz attempts average. Implications: Literature indicates self-testing strategies increase recall ability as compared to more commonly employed study techniques. Self-testing opportunities in the pharmacy curriculum could increase student retention of course materials and provide feedback to educators regarding student learning while offering students an indication of their comprehension.

Objective. To evaluate the impact of an interprofessional blended learning course on medical and pharmacy students’ patient-centered interpersonal communication skills and to compare precourse and postcourse communication skills across first-year medical and second-year pharmacy student cohorts. Methods. Students completed ten 1-hour online modules and participated in five 3-hour group sessions over one semester. Objective structured clinical examinations (OSCEs) were administered before and after the course and were evaluated using the validated Common Ground Instrument. Nonparametric statistical tests were used to examine pre/postcourse domain scores within and across professions. Results. Performance in all communication skill domains increased significantly for all students. No additional significant pre/postcourse differences were noted across disciplines. Conclusion. Students’ patient-centered interpersonal communication skills improved across multiple domains using a blended learning educational platform. Interview abilities were embodied similarly between medical and pharmacy students postcourse, suggesting both groups respond well to this form of instruction.

Objective. To determine if a flipped classroom improved student examination performance in a pharmacotherapy oncology module. Design. Third-year pharmacy students in 2012 experienced the oncology module as interactive lectures with optional case studies as supplemental homework. In 2013, students experienced the same content in a primarily flipped classroom. Students were instructed to watch vodcasts (video podcasts) before in-class case studies but were not held accountable (ie, quizzed) for preclass preparation. Examination questions were identical in both cohorts. Performance on examination questions was compared between the two cohorts using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), with prior academic performance variables (grade point average [GPA]) as covariates. Assessment. The students who experienced the flipped classroom approach performed poorer on examination questions than the cohort who experienced interactive lecture, with previous GPA used as a covariate. Conclusion. A flipped classroom does not necessarily improve student performance. Further research is needed to determine optimal classroom flipping techniques.