The importance of school buildings, among the built heritage of a community, is largely acknowledged. Due to past seismic events, damage or even collapse of schools have had a huge social impact. The safety of children and youth has a fundamental priority and, in addition, the unsafety of schools can aggravate social dispersion phenomena which follow an earthquake. In the aftermath of the Molise earthquake (2002), which caused the collapse of a primary school in San Giuliano di Puglia (Campobasso, Italy) and the consequent death of 27 children and a teacher, the Italian government issued a national plan for the seismic vulnerability assessment of relevant and strategic structures all over the country. The huge number of structures to be evaluated makes this operation extremely complex and, after almost twenty years, it still requires efficient and cost-effective (also in terms of execution time) tools to be effectively planned. More recently, the United Nations adopted, in March 2015, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, which is articulated in “priorities”, providing actions to be implemented. Specifically, Priority 1 is focused on “understanding disaster risk”, while Priority 2 sets the goal of “strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk”. Both objectives require to deepen knowledge of risks and of its components (i.e., hazard, exposure and vulnerability) at various territorial scale (e.g., national or urban). This thesis presents the seismic vulnerability and fragility assessment of school buildings in Italy, to address this problem at multiple scales, at municipality level and at national level, also including investigations on case studies for refined modelling. First, a prioritisation procedure to sort school buildings part of an urban stock by their seismic vulnerability is proposed. This procedure has the aim of supporting local administrations and enterprises in charge with built stocks in decision-making for the allocation of limited funds for retrofit. The knowledge process of the building stock is comprised of on-site visual surveys and retrieval of original projects documentations. Then, the priority list is defined based on the combination of a qualitative evaluation and of a quantitative capacity/demand ratio resulting from a simplified mechanics-based model. The former results from the application of a form, counting structural and non-structural deficiencies, which is proposed in this work for masonry, reinforced concrete (r.c.), and mixed masonry-r.c. buildings, by updating an existing form. The priority-ranking procedure was applied to r.c. school buildings managed by the Municipality of Padova, in north-east Italy. Then, in the second part of the thesis, the research focuses on the fragility assessment of macro-classes of buildings, representative of the Italian school taxonomy, aimed at risk evaluation at national scale. Based on the Italian school building census, macro-classes of buildings were identified according to a limited number of parameters (i.e., the construction material, age of construction, number of stories, and plan area). Fragility curves were derived for five damage states (from slight damage to complete collapse), with reference to the European Macroseismic Scale (EMS98). For masonry schools, fragility curves were derived for 265 building types by means of a simplified mechanics-based approach, named Vulnus, which accounts for both in-plane and out-of-plane responses. Fragility assessment was also carried out for a macro-class of r.c. school buildings by selecting two representative schools from the above-mentioned urban stock managed by the Municipality of Padova. A non-linear fibre model was developed for each prototype building, taking into account its specific features, such as the presence of infills and of non-seismic joints. Non-Linear Time History Analyses (NLTHA) were carried out by applying a great number of natural and scaled ground motion records, covering a large range of seismic intensities. Fragility curves were derived by statistically processing the outcomes of NLTHA. Thus, the application of two alternative approaches for fragility estimate are provided in this work. Finally, damage maps at national scale are provided by implementing the obtained fragilities, showing the distribution of expected damage for a selected return period and for observation time windows.

Les travaux effectués dans le cadre de cette thèse portent sur l’analyse de la vulnérabilité sismique des canalisations enterrés d’un réseau d’alimentation en eau potable (AEP). Ceci afin de disposer d’outils fiables permettant le diagnostique et le ciblage des interventions à même de réduire le risque de perte dans ce réseau en cas de tremblement de terre. Un exemple d’application des concepts développés dans cette étude porte sur la ville de Blida qui possède une infrastructure économique importante et dont le réseau constitue un échantillon représentatif des réseaux d’AEP des villes Algériennes. Ce réseau a été mis sous Système d’Information Géographique (SIG) afin de permettre une lecture aisée des différents résultats. Deux approches ont été utilisées pour appréhender ce problème de vulnérabilité, une approche statistique et une approche numérique. L’approche statistique utilise le retour d’expérience sismique comme base et a permis de d’identifier les paramètres ayant une influence sur le comportement sismique d’un tronçon de canalisation. Des coefficients de pondération ont été déterminés à partir d’analyse de données post sismique ce qui a conduit à la définition d’un indice de vulnérabilité. Ce dernier permet une classification des canalisations enterrées en fonction de leur vulnérabilité. Des courbes de vulnérabilité sont également proposées. L’approche numérique utilise le concept de macroéléments pour modéliser le comportement d’une canalisation enterrée sous sollicitation sismique en considérant l’interaction sol-conduite. Les champs proches et lointains sont considérés à travers un macroélément, de même que le comportement du joint entre deux tronçons. Une stratégie de calcul a été élaborée et testée sur un exemple de conduite. Les résultats obtenus décrivent le comportement réel des tuyauteries lors d’un tremblement de terre. Ils permettent d’affiner les coefficients de l’approche statistique et les calculs pourront être utilisés pour construire les courbes de vulnérabilité / Within this work, seismic vulnerability of buried pipelines is investigated. This is to provide reliable tools allowing the diagnosis and the targeting of interventions that can reduce the risk of loss in the water network in case of an earthquake. A case study focused on the city of Blida is analyzed in order to apply the developed concepts herein. Blida has a large economic infrastructure and its water network is a representative sample of the water supply systems of Algerian cities. This network was put under a Geographic Information System (GIS) to allow easy interpretation of the different results. Two approaches were used to study this vulnerability problem, a statistical method and a numerical method. Thestatistical approach uses the seismic feedback experiences as a basis to identify the parameters that have an influence on the seismic behavior of a pipe. Weighting factors are determined too, allowing the definition of a vulnerability index. This one enables the classification of buried pipelines according their vulnerability. Vulnerability curves are also proposed. The numerical approach uses the concept of macro element to model the behavior of a buried pipeline under seismic solicitation taking into account the soil structure interaction. Far field and near field are considered through the use of a maco element, another macoelement is developed for the joint between two pipes. A computational strategy is developed and tested on a sample. The results describe the behavior of pipes during an earthquake. They allow a refinement of the statistical approach coefficients and the methodology can be used to build vulnerability curves.

This research quantifies the seismic vulnerability of older reinforced concrete frame structures located in Mid-America. After designing a representative three-story gravity load designed reinforced concrete frame structure, a nonlinear analytical representation was used evaluate inter-story drift demands from simulated earthquake time histories that were representative for the region. Limit state story drift capacities were identified for FEMA 273 guidelines, nonlinear pushover analyses, and incremental dynamic analyses. Integrating these two quantities allowed for the creation of fragility curves which relates the probability of exceeding a particular limit state given an imposed spectral acceleration at the fundamental building period. These curves were then used to evaluate the seismic vulnerability of the representatively designed structure. The structure as originally designed was found to be inadequate to resist large lateral loading that would be typical for the Memphis area. So structural retrofit performed by increasing the column-to-beam strength ratio was evaluated by increasing the strength of the column members in the analytical model. The first retrofit raised the column-to-beam strength ratio to 1.2, which is currently required by the ACI code provisions. The second retrofit raised the column-to-beam strength ratio to 1.8, as suggested in previous studies. The story capacity, demand, and fragility curves were once again created for these retrofitted structures. Comparison of these fragility curves is discussed in relation to the retrofit strategy of column strengthening for older reinforced concrete frame structures in Mid-America.

This research quantifies the seismic vulnerability of older reinforced concrete frame structures located in Mid-America. After designing a representative three-story gravity load designed reinforced concrete frame structure, a nonlinear analytical representation was used evaluate inter-story drift demands from simulated earthquake time histories that were representative for the region. Limit state story drift capacities were identified for FEMA 273 guidelines, nonlinear pushover analyses, and incremental dynamic analyses. Integrating these two quantities allowed for the creation of fragility curves which relates the probability of exceeding a particular limit state given an imposed spectral acceleration at the fundamental building period. These curves were then used to evaluate the seismic vulnerability of the representatively designed structure. The structure as originally designed was found to be inadequate to resist large lateral loading that would be typical for the Memphis area. So structural retrofit performed by increasing the column-to-beam strength ratio was evaluated by increasing the strength of the column members in the analytical model. The first retrofit raised the column-to-beam strength ratio to 1.2, which is currently required by the ACI code provisions. The second retrofit raised the column-to-beam strength ratio to 1.8, as suggested in previous studies. The story capacity, demand, and fragility curves were once again created for these retrofitted structures. Comparison of these fragility curves is discussed in relation to the retrofit strategy of column strengthening for older reinforced concrete frame structures in Mid-America.

<p>The potential for damaging earthquakes in Indiana from the New Madrid Seismic Zone (NMSZ) has been known for 200 years. However, the identification of the Wabash Valley Seismic Zone (WVSZ) has increased the awareness of the seismic risk in Indiana. The Indiana Department of Transportation (INDOT) has been preparing for the occurrence of a large event by reducing the vulnerability of its bridge network, specifically in the Vincennes district. To facilitate the work of the State of Indiana, in this thesis the development of a simplified assessment procedure for the bridges typical in Indiana is presented. The thesis also includes a proposed simplified assessment tool, Indiana Seismic Assessment Tool (INSAT) to rapidly assess the vulnerability of INDOT’s bridges. To understand the behavior and vulnerabilities typical to bridges in Indiana, a set of 100 representative bridges was chosen for a detailed seismic assessment. The assessment is completed using information from the bridge drawings and 100 synthetic ground motion time-histories. The results of the detailed assessment, found in the SPR 4222 final report, are used to develop trends in mass and stiffness across bridge types, to identify vulnerability thresholds for application in the simplified assessment, and to validate the simplified assessment procedure.</p><p> </p><p>The simplified seismic assessment procedure presented in this thesis and INSAT leverage information found in BIAS. However, in its current state, BIAS does not contain enough information to perform a robust seismic assessment. Eight data items are recommended for implementation into BIAS in order to carry out a simplified assessment. These eight data items are the substructure type, the abutment type, the number of elements, the element height, length, and width, the deck thickness, and a height ratio flag. While some of these items can be estimated, the best version of the simplified assessment utilizes all of the recommended data items and leads to an 87% agreement between the vulnerability classifications of the simplified assessment and the detailed assessment.</p>

Seismically vulnerable buildings constitute a major problem for the safety of human beings. In many parts of the world, reinforced concrete (RC) frame buildings designed and constructed with substandard detailing, no consideration of capacity design principles, and improper or no inclusion of the seismic actions, have been identified. Amongst those vulnerable building, one particular typology representative of the construction practice of the years previous to the 1970’s, that most likely represents the worst case scenario, has been widely investigated in the past. The deficiencies of that building typology are related to non-ductile detailing in beam column joints such as the use of plain round bars, the lack of stirrups inside the joint around the longitudinal reinforcement of the column, the use of 180° end hooks in the beams, the use of lap splices in potential ‘plastic hinge’ regions, and substandard quality of the materials. That type of detailing and the lack of a capacity design philosophy create a very fragile fuse in the structure where brittle inelastic behaviour is expected to occur, which is the panel zone region of exterior beam column joints. The non-ductile typology described above was extensively investigated at the University of Canterbury in the context of the project ‘Retrofit Solutions for New Zealand Multi-Storey Buildings’ (2004-2011), founded by the ‘Foundation for Research, Science and Technology’ Tūāpapa Rangahau Pūtaiao. The experimental campaign prior to the research carried out by the author consisted of quasi-static tests of beam column joint subassemblies subjected to lateral loading regime, with constant and varying axial load in the column. Most of those specimens were representative of a plane 2D frame (knee joint), while others represented a portion of a space 3D frame (corner joints), and only few of them had a floor slab, transverse beams, and lap splices. Using those experiments, several feasible, cost-effective, and non-invasive retrofit techniques were developed, improved, and refined. Nevertheless, the slow motion nature of those experiments did not take into account the dynamical component inherent to earthquake related problems. Amongst the set of techniques investigated, the use of FRP layers for strengthening beam column joints is of particular interest due to its versatility and the momentum that its use has gained in the current state of the practice. That particular retrofit technique was previously used to develop a strengthening scheme suitable for plane 2D and space 3D corner beam column joints, but lacking of floor slabs. In addition, a similar scheme was not developed for exterior joints of internal frames, referred here as ‘cruciform’. In this research a 2/5 scale RC frame model building comprising of two frames in parallel (external and internal) joined together by means of floor slabs and transverse beams, with non-ductile characteristics identical to those of the specimens investigated previously by others, and also including lap splices, was developed. In order to investigate the dynamic response of that building, a series of shake table tests with different ground motions were performed. After the first series of tests, the specimen was modified by connecting the spliced reinforcement in the columns in order to capture a different failure mode. Ground motions recorded during seismic events that occurred during the initial period of the experimental campaign (2010) were used in the subsequent experiments. The hierarchy of strengths and sequence of events in the panel zone region were evaluated in an extended version of the bending moment-axial load (M-N) performance domain developed by others. That extension was required due to the asymmetry in the beam cross section introduced by the floor slab. In addition, the effect of the torsion resistance provided by the spandrel (transverse beam) was included. In order to upgrade the brittle and unstable performance of the as-built/repaired specimen, a practical and suitable ad-hoc FRP retrofit intervention was developed, following a partial retrofit strategy that aimed to strengthen exterior beam column joints only (corner and cruciform). The ability of the new FRP scheme to revert the sequence of events in the panel zone region was evaluated using the extended version of the M-N performance domain as well as the guidelines for strengthening plane joints developed by others. Weakening of the floor slab in a novel configuration was also incorporated with the purpose of reducing the flexural capacity of the beam under negative bending moment (slab in tension), enabling the damage relocation from the joint into the beam. The efficacy of the developed retrofit intervention in upgrading the seismic performance of the as-built specimen was investigated using shake table tests with the input motions used in the experiments of the as-built/repaired specimen. Numerical work aimed to predict the response of the model building during the most relevant shake table tests was carried out. By using a simple numerical model with concentrated plasticity elements constructed in Ruaumoko2D, the results of blind and post-experimental predictions of the response of the specimen were addressed. Differences in the predicted response of the building using the nominal and the actual recorded motions of the shake table were investigated. The dependence of the accuracy of the numerical predictions on the assumed values of the parameters that control the hysteresis rules of key structural members was reviewed. During the execution of the experimental campaign part of this thesis, two major earthquakes affected the central part of Chile (27 of February 2010 Maule earthquake) and the Canterbury region in New Zealand (22 February 2011 Canterbury earthquake), respectively. As the author had the opportunity to experience those events and investigate their consequences in structures, the observations related to non-ductile detailing and drawbacks in the state of the practice related to reinforced concrete walls was also addressed in this research, resulting in preliminary recommendations for the refinement of current seismic code provisions and assessment guidelines. The investigations of the ground motions recorded during those and other earthquakes were used to review the procedures related to the input motions used for nonlinear dynamic analysis of buildings as required by most of the current code provisions. Inelastic displacement spectra were constructed using ground motions recorded during the earthquakes mentioned above, in order to investigate the adequacy of modification factors used to obtain reduced design spectra from elastic counterparts. Finally a simplified assessment procedure for RC walls that incorporates capacity compatible spectral demands is proposed.

<div><div><div><p>The possibility of earthquakes in Indiana due to the presence of the New Madrid Seismic Zone is well known. However, the identification of the Wabash Valley Seismic Zone has increased our understanding of the seismic hazard in the state of Indiana. Due to this awareness of the increased potential for earthquakes, specifically in the Vincennes District, the seismicvulnerability of Indiana’s bridge network must be assessed. As such, the objective of this thesis is to develop a simplified assessment procedure that can be used to conduct a state-wide seismic vulnerability assessment of reinforced concrete bridges in Indiana.</p><p>Across the state, variability in substructure type, seismic hazard level, and soil site class influences the vulnerability of bridges. To fully understand the impact of this variation, a detailed assessment is completed on a representative sample. Twenty-five reinforced concrete bridges are selected across the state, and analyzed using information from the bridge drawings and a finite element analysis procedure. These bridges are analyzed using synthetic ground motions representative of the hazard level in Indiana. The results of the detailed analysis are used to develop a simplified assessment procedure that uses information that is available in BIAS or can be added to BIAS. At this time, BIAS does not contain all the necessary information required for accurate estimates of dynamic properties, thus, certain assumptions are made. Several candidate models are developed by incrementally increasing the level of information proposed to be added into BIAS, which resulted in an increase in the level of accuracy of the results. The simplified assessment is then validated through a comparison with the detailed analysis.</p><p>Through the development of the simplified assessment procedure, the minimum data item which must be added to BIAS to complete the assessment is the substructure type, and bridges with reinforced concrete columns in the substructure require a detailed assessment. Lastly, by increasing the level of information available in BIAS, the agreement between the results of the simplified assessment and the detailed assessment is improved.</p></div></div></div>

El Perú está ubicado en una zona sísmica alta debido a que se encuentra en el Cinturón de Fuego del Pacífico; en la cual, se produjeron varios eventos sísmicos de gran magnitud que generaron consecuencias catastróficas. Además de ello, hace más de 200 años no ocurre un terremoto cerca de la capital peruana. Por otro lado, los centros educativos deben servir como lugares de refugio ante cualquier catástrofe. Por ese motivo, es importante evaluar que módulos o pabellones escolares públicos son aptos para soportar un sismo importante. En base a ello, la presente tesis evalúa la vulnerabilidad sísmica mediante un método cualitativo, que fue usado en varios países para determinar la vulnerabilidad de las estructuras, y otro método cuantitativo, basado en la filosofía de la norma peruana sismoresistente E0.30. La metodología cualitativa, Índice de vulnerabilidad del FEMA P-154, emplea cartillas de evaluación visual rápida de la vulnerabilidad sísmica para cualquier edificación, en este caso instituciones educativas públicas, es muy útil al tener una data extensa. De la misma manera, la metodología cuantitativa evalúa según la distorsión los posibles efectos que puede tener una estructura después de un sismo severo. El distrito de Villa María del Triunfo fue seleccionado para emplear esta metodología por ser un lugar con poco mantenimiento de colegios y para mostrar que módulos o pabellones son seguros para que los pobladores de dicho lugar se refugien. / Peru is located in a high seismic zone due to the Pacific Ring of Fire; in which, several seismic events of great magnitude generated catastrophic consequences. In addition to this, more than 200 years ago doesn’t happen a mayor earthquake near the Peruvian capital. On the other hand, according to world politics, schools must serve as places of refuge to face any catastrophe. For this reason, it is important to evaluate which modules of public-school are able to withstand an important earthquake. Based on this, this thesis evaluates the seismic vulnerability by means of a qualitative method, which was used in several countries to determine the vulnerability of the structures, and another quantitative method, based on the philosophy of the norma peruana seismoresistente E0.30. The qualitative methodology, FEMA Vulnerability Index P-154, uses quick visual assessment sheets of seismic vulnerability for any building, in this case public educational institutions, is very efficient when a very extensive data is required. In the same way, the quantitative methodology evaluates, according to the distortion, the possible effects that a structure can suffer after a several earthquake. The district of Villa María del Triunfo was selected to use this methodology for being a place with little maintenance of schools and to show what modules or pavilions are safe for people to take refuge. / Tesis

In this study, an alternative seismic vulnerability assessment model is developed. For this purpose, one of the most popular artificial intelligence techniques, Artificial Neural Network (ANN), is used. Many ANN models are generated using 4 different network training functions, 1 to 50 hidden neurons and combination of structural parameters like number of stories, normalized redundancy scores, overhang ratios, soft story indices, normalized total column areas, normalized total wall areas are used to achieve the best assessment performance. Duzce database is used throughout the thesis for training ANN. A neural network simulator is developed in Microsoft Excel using the weights and parameters obtained from the best model created at Duzce damage database studies. Afyon, Erzincan, and Ceyhan databases are simulated using the developed simulator. A recently created database named Zeytinburnu is used for the projection purposes. The building sesimic vulnerability assessment of Zeytinburnu area is conducted on 3043 buildings using the proposed procedure.

En el presente trabajo de investigación tiene como objetivo sistematizar la información sobre las características de edificaciones de albañilería en una plataforma geoespacial, basándonos de las aplicaciones de una función de vulnerabilidad (centro histórico Chiclayo) para el análisis de la vulnerabilidad y posteriormente evaluar el riesgo sísmico. Las edificaciones de albañilería confinada en los AA.HH, en específico de los sectores de estudio. Son viviendas que se construyen sin la supervisión de un especialista (ingenio civil), donde las viviendas son construidas generalmente por los propios pobladores o un maestro de obra de la zona, quienes desconocen las mínimas características del Reglamento Nacional de Edificaciones. Teniendo este escenario se ha realizo el análisis bajo once (11) parámetros para poder determinar la vulnerabilidad y el riesgo sísmico. Donde la característica principal del problema es, que se tiene como escenario las autoconstrucciones en las edificaciones de albañilería, donde esta situación pone en peligro a gran parte de la ciudadanía y la población por falta de conocimiento al momento de realizar dichas construcciones. El método a emplear en la investigación es de Benedetti y Petrini (método Italiano) estima un índice de vulnerabilidad calculado en función de las características de la estructura que más influyen en su comportamiento sísmico, y lo relaciona con un índice de daño, que a su vez depende de la acción del movimiento sísmico. El diseño de la Investigación es, No experimental, Transversal y Descriptivo los resultados que se obtuvo son edificaciones con vulnerabilidad de baja, moderada y severo. Para esta investigación de tubo tamaño de la población (manzanas) = 191, donde la muestra a utilizar es (n = 128) manzanas a evaluar en le los sectores 19, 20, 21, y 22 de distrito de chorrillos. In the present research aims to systematize information on the characteristics of masonry buildings in a geospatial platform based applications built-in vulnerability (historic center Chiclayo) for vulnerability analysis and subsequently evaluate the seismic risk. Confined masonry buildings in AA.HH in specific fields of study. These are homes that are built without the supervision of a specialist (Civil Engineering), where homes are generally built by villagers themselves or foreman of the area who know the minimum requirements of the National Building Regulations. Given this scenario analysis has been conducted on eleven (11) parameters to determine the vulnerability and seismic risk. The method used in research is of Benedetti and Petrini (Italian method) estimates a vulnerability index calculated according to the structure characteristics that influence their seismic behavior, and links it to an index of damage, which in turn depends on the action of earthquake. The research design is not experimental, transversal and descriptive the results obtained are vulnerable buildings with low, moderate and severe. Nationwide studies of seismic vulnerability of masonry buildings are rare, because there is a lack of knowledge of the general population how to follow procedures (construction process) in the construction of such buildings, where this can help mitigate the problem before a seismic event with destructive effects and the lack of alternative solutions increases the risk before a seismic event.