Zugl.: Berlin, Freie Univ., Diss., 2008

People visit protected areas (PAs) for enjoyment and appreciation of nature. However, tourism that is not well planned and managed can significantly degrade the environment, and impact negatively on nearby communities. Of further concern is the distribution of the costs and benefits of nature-based tourism (NBT) in PAs, with some communities experiencing proportionally more benefits, while other communities experience more of the cost. This distribution is complex and differs considerably amongst PAs. This thesis examines the flow and distribution of the costs and benefits of the NBT supply system to conservation and communities in the Serengeti ecosystem, Tanzania. The Serengeti ecosystem, a World Heritage site and a leading global wildlife tourism destination, was selected for this study because of high biodiversity, high poverty, and a high level of NBT activity. The research was guided by four main questions: (1) what is the nature of the supply system of NBT in the Serengeti ecosystem; (2) how do the management plans allow for and guide tourism in the Serengeti ecosystem; (3) what are the impacts of the NBT supply system on conservation; and, (4) what are the impacts of the NBT supply system on communities? A qualitative approach was used, combining document analysis, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions. This involved collecting data from a number of participants: PA agencies; the tourism industry; nearby communities; and non-governmental organizations. Participants were recruited through purposive and snowball sampling techniques. The findings offer an ecosystem-scale perspective rather than the common focus on a single PA. The study uses complex systems theory to help frame the NBT supply system in the Serengeti ecosystem, which is comprised of numerous agents that can be grouped in four major components − PAs, communities, tourism operations, and elements of the wider environment. The agents, such as tour operators, park management, and communities, vary across the ecosystem, and have multiple roles in NBT, including management of attractions, tourism planning and management, and provision of accommodation, transportation, accessibility, information, security, and utilities. There are complex interactions and relationships among these components across the ecosystem, and at local, regional, national, and international scales. PAs interact with tourism operators, PAs interact with communities, tourism operators interact with communities, and the three components are linked to the wider environment. These components of the NBT supply system interact dynamically in a non-linear manner, resulting in mixed outcomes for conservation and communities. The findings indicate the need for an integrated management approach to NBT in the Serengeti ecosystem that is more adaptive and ecosystem-based than currently exists. The wildlife legislation requires all PAs in the Serengeti ecosystem to have management plans, but some do not. The management plans in the ecosystem vary among PAs, with a number of flaws, including inadequate participation of stakeholders, poor use of zoning (design and implementation), and ineffective application of the “Limits of Acceptable Use” (LAU) as a main framework for controlling use. Management can be improved by several measures, including more effective inclusion of stakeholders, and application of the “Limits of Acceptable Change” (LAC) rather than “LAU,” amongst other measures that are outlined in more detail below. NBT in the Serengeti ecosystem is growing, and delivers a range of conservation benefits and costs that vary across the ecosystem. These conservation benefits include: financial support for conservation, improved biodiversity conservation and PA management, raised conservation awareness, and public support for conservation. These benefits can be improved by enhancing the quality of services and tourism experience, charging appropriate fees, PA agencies retaining a portion of tourism revenue, and improving collaboration and participation of stakeholders in NBT and conservation. Conservation costs include financial costs, wildlife disturbance, shifting priorities from conservation to tourism, habitat destruction, and pollution. These costs can be reduced by undertaking thorough investigation of the potential costs and benefits of tourism development, effective management planning, improving provision of information to tourists, and improving NBT management. NBT delivers many benefits to communities, such as income, employment, social services and infrastructure, scholarships, and school fees. These benefits can be improved by participation of local communities in conservation, promoting capacity building in local communities, improving legislation and mechanisms governing delivery of benefits, and encouraging communities to establish Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs). NBT results in many costs to local communities, such as loss of grazing land and farmland, conflict (tourism stakeholders, and human-wildlife conflicts), stress to local residents due to increase of human populations, and unintended consequences such as cultural degradation. These costs can be reduced by involving local communities in tourism development and management and developing codes of conduct for tourism operators and PA agencies. Specific examples of suggested actions include: developing and implementing effective management plans; promoting stakeholder awareness of conservation, NBT, and communities; and establishing a forum for discussing interests and issues of stakeholders in the ecosystem. The flow and distribution of these costs and benefits to conservation and communities also varies across the Serengeti ecosystem. Overall, NBT generates substantial benefits to PAs, although considerably less revenue is allocated to conservation activities than is accrued from NBT. On the other hand, local communities experience considerable costs and receive inadequate benefits that are not sufficient to address poverty. Inadequate mechanisms that govern the flow of the costs and benefits, poor governance, and persistent poverty are some of the main factors contributing to the imbalance of the flow and distribution of the costs and benefits of NBT. Finally, a complex systems perspective was shown to be a useful tool in understanding the NBT system as a whole, the dynamic interaction within the system and beyond, and associated costs and benefits delivered by that system. Overall, this study recommends adaptive management, ecosystem-based management, and an integrated approach that recognizes and accommodates the interests of various NBT stakeholders in the Serengeti ecosystem. Specific actions of high priority include developing and implementing effective management plans, adopting LAC in PA planning, capacity building for communities to participate in the tourism industry, and participation and collaboration of NBT stakeholders in the ecosystem. / Graduate

Unravelling the complexities of a disease with multiple wildlife host and multiple tsetse vector species is no easy task. After over a century of field observations, experimental studies, anecdotal evidence and conjecture, the role of wildlife in the transmission of trypanosomes is still unclear. Recently, however, frameworks used in the studies of other vector-borne diseases with wildlife reservoirs showed that not only is it possible to understand transmission, but that spatio-temporal predictions of human disease risk and targeted control are realistic aims, even in such complex systems. This thesis explores the epidemiology of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem in Northern Tanzania, where recent cases in tourists have highlighted the disease as a public health and economic concern. Assessment of the prevalence of trypanosome infections in different wildlife species is the first step in investigating the relative importance of different species in disease transmission. Identification of trypanosomes relies on sensitive and specific diagnostic tests. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) protocols based on interspecies differences in the length of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions have been widely used in livestock to identify multiple trypanosome species in one PCR reaction. This study represents the first assessment of these protocols on blood samples collected from wildlife. Clonal sequence analysis of PCR products revealed a large range of trypanosomes circulating in wildlife, including Trypanosoma congolense, Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma simiae Tsavo, Trypanosoma godfreyi and Trypanosoma vivax. In addition sequences similar to known sequences, termed Trypanosoma simiae-like and T. vivax-like trypanosomes, may reflect further diversity. However, further characterisation is needed before ITS protocols can be used widely for epidemiological studies in wildlife. The prevalence of T. brucei s.l. and T. congolense varied widely between species. This variation was predominantly explained by taxonomic classification, suggesting intrinsic differences in response to trypanosomes. Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, the subspecies responsible for HAT, was identified in lion, hyaena and reedbuck. Age significantly affected the prevalence of T. congolense in lion and hyaena, with the highest prevalence in subadults. The lack of statistically significant differences in prevalence between animals sampled live or after death confirmed that post-mortem sampling provides a method for increasing sample sizes in wildlife studies. The complex relationship between tsetse density and prevalence of trypanosome infections illustrated the difficulties of assessing data from diverse ecosystems with many potential confounding factors. A cross-sectional study of Glossina swynnertoni and Glossina pallidipes, the main tsetse species in Serengeti, highlighted the difficulties of integrating the results of microscopy and PCR to generate meaningful measures of the prevalence of transmissible T. brucei infections for epidemiological studies. However, PCR results suggested that G. pallidipes may be more important as a vector of T. brucei s.l. than has been previously recognised. Spatial variation in both tsetse density and the prevalence of trypanosome infections suggests human disease risk is heterogeneous. The results of this study, along with relevant literature, are considered within the context of frameworks used for other vector-borne diseases and the implications for disease management discussed.

The purpose of this dissertation is to assess the contribution of protected areas (PAs) to the attainment of both conservation and social outcomes including poverty reduction within the Greater Serengeti Ecosystem in Tanzania. The research focused on the role of governance as a factor influencing the attainment of these goals. This research was carried out in the Serengeti, Ngorongoro and Meatu districts of Tanzania in 2012. Two villages were selected from each district using stratified sampling techniques to obtain villages bordering many PAs including the core PA (i.e. Serengeti National Park). A mixed methods approach was used in this research which comprised of quantitative interviews with 389 households, key informants interviews with 88 stakeholders, 12 focus group discussion and document analysis. The study used a quantitative questionnaire to measure the effectiveness of governance as perceived at the household level. The questionnaire yielded 10 governance factors that accounted for 85% percent of the explained variance using factor analysis. The findings indicated weak governance particularly for Ikorongo-Grumeti Game Reserve. When examined across the ecosystem, weak linkages were evident between the PA actors and other actors such particularly at local community level. There was no difference in governance scoring between community-based PAs and the more traditional top-down government owned PAs. Furthermore, local communities were not adequately represented in PA governance despite being important actors. Findings indicated mixed results in terms of conservation and social outcomes. Results indicate implied relationship between mixed outcomes and weak governance with weak outcomes thought to be related to weak governance. This study recommends adaptations in the Serengeti ecosystem particularly the re-engineering of the ecosystem governance structure to bring on-board more actors in decision-making and management processes and actions through increased linkages between governance actors, governance structures and processes. / Graduate / 0366 / 0768 / 0478 / akisingo@mwekawildlife.org

Coexisting ungulate-eating carnivores--lion, spotted hyena, cheetah, leopard, African wild dog, black-backed jackal, common jackal, and six species of vulture--are examined in East Africa's Serengeti ecosystem. Niche similarities year-round, by season, and by location are described using food, habitat, time of hunting, and other variables. Intraspecific niches of cheetah sex, age, and social groups show that male coalitions differ most from the others in hunting behavior and habitat use. Tests using the carnivore data failed to support hypotheses about niche breadth variation, niche overlap variation, range of food items, and niche inclusion. Densities of the five largest Carnivora in the 35,500 square kilometer ecosystem are 0.513/sq km; including the two jackals gives a density of 1.55/sq km. Their prey--30 ungulate species--are 84 .85/sq km. Prey and predator ratios suggest that the Serengeti Plains in 1977 had a three-fourthsdecrease in relative abundance of prey to predators from wet season to dry season . Year-round the Ngorongoro Crater had a prey:predator ratio s lightly larger than that of the dry season Serengeti Plains. Literature review suggests that cleptoparasitism and direct killing are very important forms of interference competition among and within carnivore species . Evidence for exploitation competition i s scant, but is inferred because local environments are unpredictable f or carnivores. Analysis of body sizes fails to support the hypothesized ratios of 2.0 for body weigh t and 1.28 for linear dimensions . Three methods of calculating multidimensional niche metrics (product, summation, and projection) are compared. Apparently the Serengeti's carnivores coexist because of their behavioral flexibility in an unpredictable environment . Niche descriptions were of little he l p in assessing the foci for potential and real competition among carnivores . Only the direct observations of interference competition in long-term field studies identified where competitive interactions are occurring with sufficient intensity to provide a numerical response in a population. Spotted hyenas some times competitively exclude African wild dogs locally . Management f or a high abundance and diversity of carnivores probably requires maintaining high densities of prey and varied habitats. Specific recommendations are made for cheetah and African wild dog conservation.

Removing just one species from an ecosystem can have radical results. Tony Sinclair's grand-scale biodviersity knockout experiment sets out to determine why.

Over the past three decades, there has been a global paradigm shift in biodiversity conservation approaches from exclusive protected areas (PAs) towards people-centred conservation. This has encouraged the development of community-based conservation across the world, promoting reconciliation between livelihood improvement and biodiversity conservation. However, there is a growing body of literature that demonstrates mixed outcomes of community-based conservation approaches in contributing to improved conservation and local livelihoods, especially to the communities neighbouring PAs in Africa. This dissertation examines the experience of implementing one community wildlife management area (WMA) in Tanzania, with a particular focus on the effectiveness of Ikona WMA in contributing to improved conservation and local livelihoods in Western Serengeti. Specifically, the study investigates livelihood benefits and conservation impacts attributed to Ikona WMA in the study area. It also explores the success and challenges of implementing Ikona WMA and suggests areas for improvement. Qualitative and quantitative data were gathered through field-based research in Nyichoka and Robanda villages, which participate in Ikona WMA, and Rwamchanga village, which does not. Research methods employed in this study include interviews, focus group discussions, and household surveys. With regard to livelihood benefits attributed to Ikona WMA, results show benefits to the communities participating in WMA at the community level, especially improvement of social infrastructure, while few or no benefits were realized at the household level. In addition, findings show variation in perceptions between and among the communities participating in Ikona WMA and the community not participating, and among conservation experts about community access to natural resources and benefits experienced at the household level in the study area. Findings show that the communities participating in the WMA had more positive perceptions of Ikona WMA, and perceived more conservation impact than did the community not participating in the WMA. Both community members and WMA administrators perceived a decline of illegal activities, improvement of habitat, increase of wild animals, and increase of wildlife protection as the major conservation impacts attributable to Ikona WMA. Ikona WMA demonstrates some success in contributing to improved conservation and local livelihoods at the community level. However, the study reveals a number of challenges hindering effective implementation of Ikona WMA, including insufficient power over crucial decision making and ownership of wildlife resources, insufficient involvement of community members, unequal distribution of benefits at the village level, and insufficient transparency, accountability, and monitoring of village development projects. In addition, respondents identified low levels of education among community members and WMA staff members, weak collaboration with other conservation actors, and increases in both livestock and human populations as challenges to the WMA in the study area. The study suggests that broad level participation of community members in decision making about wildlife conservation, empowerment of the local community, particularly with regard to financial resources, skills training, and true devolution of power over wildlife to the community, as well as fostering equity in benefit sharing at the village level, could help to cultivate community interest in wildlife conservation. / Graduate / 0768 / 0478 / 0368

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Guelph, 1998. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 138-162).

No description available.

This dissertation critiques the nature-culture divide by examining the relationships between binaries in postcolonial wildlife research in Tanzania. I focus on the work of wildlife scientists, particularly scientists from Tanzania, who work in Tanzania’s Serengeti National Park (SNP). Tanzanian scientists and their foreign counterparts are addressing the theoretical challenges of incorporating park neighbors into ecosystems shaped by the colonial inheritance of national parks as non-human places. I make three broad analytical moves in this endeavor. First, I develop a multi-dimensional method to compare the development of a people-park binary in the Serengeti context by analyzing ethnography, conservation science, and recent scientific debate on a proposed road through the northern part of SNP. Second, I explore connections between the people-park binary and other binaries in the broader Serengeti context using text analysis and ethnographic methods based on eighteen months of fieldwork. Last, I develop a future plan for theoretical and applied research that explores how and why binaries may or may not change concurrently. I conclude that the people-park binary is weakening through the process of “dilation:” a multi-dimensional and reversible process of change during which the borders, substance, and connectivity of dichotomized categories become less rigid. In the broader effort to understand how the people-park binary is dilating, I explore the preliminary conclusion that other binaries (visual-verbal, Tanzanian-foreign, women-men, Kiswahili-English, insect-charismatic wildlife) are also shifting as conservation science becomes more diverse. I propose future research to investigate inter-binary relationships as linked through thematic meaning, conceptual processes, and structural context. This research demonstrates that scientists are using multiple binaries and contexts to conceptually reimagine the colonial legacy of conservation. In essence, their work asks: can the park boundary be maintained as the detrimental social boundaries (national, gender, language, and, perhaps, discipline) that have been historically embedded in the park boundary are transformed? Through intellectual confrontations with dichotomies, knowledge production and reality-making in Africa can be understood as both universally and locally applicable.