In the rural areas of Kwa Zulu Natal small scale farming is the main agricultural activity, which is often carried out in addition to other employment taken on in another location by at least one member of the household. Although Veterinary services (VS) was aware of several diseases occurring in this area and has implemented a dipping strategy for tick borne diseases as well as a regional annual vaccination campaign for Rabies, Anthrax and Black quarter, uncertainty remained about the relative importance of other diseases such as brucellosis, leptospirosis and enzootic bovine leucosis. Further it was of interest to investigate the serological resistance of cattle against the tick borne diseases babesiosis and anaplasmosis. In addition to this veterinary services wanted to increase their understanding of the perceptions and practices of local cattle owners that were relevant for the context of disease control. A serological survey of cattle was carried out between March 2001 and December 2003 to determine the prevalence of the above-mentioned diseases. The survey was designed as a two-stage survey, considering the diptank as the primary sampling unit. The conduction of the questionnaire survey was based on a convenience sample and took place during the dipping procedure. The apparent prevalence at district level was adjusted for clustering, and diagnostic test sensitivity and specificity and displayed in maps. The mean true prevalence of brucellosis varied from zero to 15.8 percent in the north eastern region with the large majority of the districts being disease free. Enzootic Bovine Leukosis (EBL) was widely present in the province at generally low prevalences, except in the central region where the highest prevalence at district level was recorded to be 70 percent. Leptospirosis also occurred frequently with the highest prevalence noted being 62 percent at district level. The southern regions showed a higher leptospirosis prevalence than other areas of the province, while in some of the northern and western districts a lower prevalence is noted. The encountered servovars were pomona, which occurred most frequently, tarrasovi, bratislava, hardjo, canicola and icterohaemorrhagica. While Babesia bovis and anaplasmosis occurred at a high prevalence throughout the province, B. bigemina was found to be much less established and is absent from many of the northern districts. Most prevalences calculated at district level do show large confidence intervals due to uncertainty that arose from the sampling frame and should be interpreted with care. / Dissertation (MSc (Production Animal Studies))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Production Animal Studies / MSc / unrestricted

A toxoplasmose é uma protozoose de alta prevalência no Brasil, causada pelo Toxoplasma gondii, sendo transmitida pela ingestão de alimentos contaminados com oocistos, excretados em fezes de felinos, ou cistos, em carnes cruas ou mal cozidas. A doença é usualmente assintomática, mas em fetos ou pacientes com imunodepressão, pode ser devastadora. Neste trabalho, estudamos a prevalência sorológica da infecção em animais de diferentes regiões do estado de São Paulo, tanto de vida livre, cães (200/ABC) como indicadores ambientais, e gatos (100/São Paulo) como hospedeiros definitivos, e em animais de produção, bovinos (200/Taquarituba), suínos (200/Osasco), caprinos( 200/Botucatu), ovinos (200/São Manuel) e frangos de corte(185/Botucatu), além de estudos parasitológicos em gatos e águas sob suspeita. Foram padronizados ELISA para cada espécie animal, utilizando índices adequados e reprodutíveis, com confirmação por Western Blotting e determinação da avidez em amostras positivas. A prevalência da toxoplasmose animal foi determinada sendo crescente em suínos (8.5%), bovinos (11%), caprinos (17%), ovinos (31%), felinos (40%) e cães (50,5%), não sendo encontrada em frangos de corte. Em suínos, caprinos, cães e gatos, a freqüência de anticorpos de baixa avidez sugere que a transmissão da infecção é constante durante a vida do animal, mas em bovinos e ovinos não foram encontrados anticorpos de baixa avidez, sugerindo infecção precoce ou sazonal na vida do animal. Pela alta taxa de infecção recente em felinos, é possível prever uma fração significativa de animais excretando oocistos, embora sem comprovação parasitológica. A avaliação da presença de anticorpos anti-T.gondii deve ser criteriosa, sendo que os reagentes de hemaglutinação para uso humano fornecem resultados erráticos nesta medida. A pesquisa de oocistos na água é de baixa sensibilidade, devendo ser feita em materiais colhidos no período de suspeita da transmissão. Em São Paulo, o risco de transmissão da toxoplasmose está relacionado a quase todas as fontes de infecção pesquisadas, tornando necessários estudos para o melhor manejo dos animais de consumo humano e tratamento de água, com eliminação de gatos errantes. / Toxoplasmosis, caused by Toxoplasma gondii and highly prevalent protozoan disease in Brazil, is mainly transmitted by ingestion of contaminated food and water, both by oocysts, excreted in cat feces, or cysts from undercooked meat from warm-blooded animals. Usually asymptomatic, it is extremely severe in the fetus or immunosuppressed patients. In this work, we studied the serological prevalence of toxoplasmosis in animals from several regions of the São Paulo State, both free living, as dogs (ABC) as environmental contamination index, and cats (São Paulo, as definitive hosts, or livestock as cattle (Taquarituba), swine (Osasco), goats (Botucatu), sheep (São Manuel) and fowls (São Paulo), with parasitological studies in cats and suspicious drinking water. We standardized ELISA for each species, using reproducible and adequate indexes, with Western blot confirmation and avidity assays in positive samples. Toxoplasmosis prevalence was increasing in swine (8.5%), cattle (11%), goats (17%), sheep (31%), cats (40%) and dogs (50.5%), without positive sample in fowls. Goats, pigs, dogs and cats presented 5-20% low avidity antibody samples, suggesting sustained transmission during animal life, but cattle and sheep presented only high avidity samples, suggesting an seasonal or early in life infection. Due to the high recent infection rate in cats, it is possible to preview a significant oocyst excreting cat frequency, despite parasitological evidence. Antibody determination must be carefully evaluated, as human hemagglutination reagents give erratic information. Oocyst detection in drinking water presented very low sensitivity and must be performed only in water collected at the period of the infection. In São Paulo, almost all of tested sources are able of toxoplasmosis transmission, reinforcing the need of better management of livestock, adequate water treatment and elimination of free living cats.

A toxoplasmose é uma protozoose de alta prevalência no Brasil, causada pelo Toxoplasma gondii, sendo transmitida pela ingestão de alimentos contaminados com oocistos, excretados em fezes de felinos, ou cistos, em carnes cruas ou mal cozidas. A doença é usualmente assintomática, mas em fetos ou pacientes com imunodepressão, pode ser devastadora. Neste trabalho, estudamos a prevalência sorológica da infecção em animais de diferentes regiões do estado de São Paulo, tanto de vida livre, cães (200/ABC) como indicadores ambientais, e gatos (100/São Paulo) como hospedeiros definitivos, e em animais de produção, bovinos (200/Taquarituba), suínos (200/Osasco), caprinos( 200/Botucatu), ovinos (200/São Manuel) e frangos de corte(185/Botucatu), além de estudos parasitológicos em gatos e águas sob suspeita. Foram padronizados ELISA para cada espécie animal, utilizando índices adequados e reprodutíveis, com confirmação por Western Blotting e determinação da avidez em amostras positivas. A prevalência da toxoplasmose animal foi determinada sendo crescente em suínos (8.5%), bovinos (11%), caprinos (17%), ovinos (31%), felinos (40%) e cães (50,5%), não sendo encontrada em frangos de corte. Em suínos, caprinos, cães e gatos, a freqüência de anticorpos de baixa avidez sugere que a transmissão da infecção é constante durante a vida do animal, mas em bovinos e ovinos não foram encontrados anticorpos de baixa avidez, sugerindo infecção precoce ou sazonal na vida do animal. Pela alta taxa de infecção recente em felinos, é possível prever uma fração significativa de animais excretando oocistos, embora sem comprovação parasitológica. A avaliação da presença de anticorpos anti-T.gondii deve ser criteriosa, sendo que os reagentes de hemaglutinação para uso humano fornecem resultados erráticos nesta medida. A pesquisa de oocistos na água é de baixa sensibilidade, devendo ser feita em materiais colhidos no período de suspeita da transmissão. Em São Paulo, o risco de transmissão da toxoplasmose está relacionado a quase todas as fontes de infecção pesquisadas, tornando necessários estudos para o melhor manejo dos animais de consumo humano e tratamento de água, com eliminação de gatos errantes. / Toxoplasmosis, caused by Toxoplasma gondii and highly prevalent protozoan disease in Brazil, is mainly transmitted by ingestion of contaminated food and water, both by oocysts, excreted in cat feces, or cysts from undercooked meat from warm-blooded animals. Usually asymptomatic, it is extremely severe in the fetus or immunosuppressed patients. In this work, we studied the serological prevalence of toxoplasmosis in animals from several regions of the São Paulo State, both free living, as dogs (ABC) as environmental contamination index, and cats (São Paulo, as definitive hosts, or livestock as cattle (Taquarituba), swine (Osasco), goats (Botucatu), sheep (São Manuel) and fowls (São Paulo), with parasitological studies in cats and suspicious drinking water. We standardized ELISA for each species, using reproducible and adequate indexes, with Western blot confirmation and avidity assays in positive samples. Toxoplasmosis prevalence was increasing in swine (8.5%), cattle (11%), goats (17%), sheep (31%), cats (40%) and dogs (50.5%), without positive sample in fowls. Goats, pigs, dogs and cats presented 5-20% low avidity antibody samples, suggesting sustained transmission during animal life, but cattle and sheep presented only high avidity samples, suggesting an seasonal or early in life infection. Due to the high recent infection rate in cats, it is possible to preview a significant oocyst excreting cat frequency, despite parasitological evidence. Antibody determination must be carefully evaluated, as human hemagglutination reagents give erratic information. Oocyst detection in drinking water presented very low sensitivity and must be performed only in water collected at the period of the infection. In São Paulo, almost all of tested sources are able of toxoplasmosis transmission, reinforcing the need of better management of livestock, adequate water treatment and elimination of free living cats.