Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Wisconsin--Madison, 1929. / Typescript. eContent provider-neutral record in process. Description based on print version record. Includes bibliographical references (leaves i-xiii).

This study compares sexual variation of the human skeletal pelvis through geometric morphometric analyses. Digitization of the skeletal elements provides the framework for a multi-faceted examination of shape. The sample used in the study consists of individuals from the Bass Donated Skeletal Collection, located at the University of Tennessee-Knoxville. Landmarks digitized for the study are derived from the 36 points implemented in Joan Bytheway and Anne Ross’s geometric morphometric study of human innominates (2010). The author hypothesizes that morphological variation between males and females will be visible to varying degrees throughout the pelvis, with structures to be compared consisting of the ilium, ischium, pubis, obturator foramen, and acetabulum. Particular attention will be paid to the pelvic canal, as this area seems to carry the most sex-specific function of the bone. It is hypothesized that structures directly contributing to the pelvic canal will be more sexually dimorphic than peripheral structures. Data points plotted throughout the pelvis will allow for comparison of various regions. Results indicate that the innominate can be divided into modules with relatively low levels of covariation between them. Greatest amounts of sexual dimorphism are located at the pubis and ischium. The shape of the acetabulum and obturator foramen display little variation between the two sexes. Areas that have the potential for sex determination could be investigated more thoroughly in the future and may be of use in forensic cases in which remains are incomplete.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

Abstract There are a remarkable variety of sex determination systems among different animal taxa. In most animals, sex is determined chromosomally. Although in an increasing number of animals sex determination has been found to be influenced primarily by the environment. Species with genotypic sex determination (GSD) have their sex determined at the time of fertilization, by genetic factors alone and those with environmental sex determination (ESD) have their sex determined by environmental factors that act after fertilization. Temperature-dependent Sex Determination (TSD), whereby the sex of the developing embryos depends on the temperature at which they develop is widespread in oviparous reptiles and occurs in all crocodilians, marine turtles and tuatara examined to date and is common in many freshwater turtles and lizards. SECTION ONE Temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) was never expected to occur in viviparous reptiles, as thermoregulation by pregnant females would result in relatively stable gestation temperatures. Temperature-dependent sex determination and viviparity goes against all the basic assumptions that TSD occurs in oviparous reptiles where temperatures within a nest vary widely. However, skewed sex ratios as a result of incubation temperature indicated the possibility of TSD in the viviparous lizard Eulamprus tympanum. In my first experiments I show the first recorded case of a viviparous reptile with TSD. The developing embryos of the viviparous skink E. tympanum are subject to TSD, with gestation temperature having a highly significant effect on sex and warmer temperatures giving rise to male offspring (Chapter 1). Sex is fully determined at the time of birth and can be differentiated histologically into testes or ovaries (Chapter 2). The morphology and histological characteristics of the gonads of neonatal E. tympanum resulting from the treatment temperatures described in chapter 1 illustrate that sex in E. tympanum is easily distinguished at the time of birth and corresponds with the presence or absence of hemipenes. Males are histologically characterised by an elongated gonad consisting of seminiferous tubules with either no cortical epithelium or, if present at all, in a very thin band. If they are present, M�llerian ducts, showing signs of degeneration, are attached to the kidney by a shortened mesosalpinx. Females are histologically characterised by an irregularly shaped gonad consisting of a thick cortical epithelium that occasionally contains oocytes. The M�llerian ducts are obvious structures attached to the kidney by a fibrous mesosalpinx. The presence or absence of hemipenes is a reliable technique for determining sex in newborn E. tympanum. Sex determination is easiest to perform on neonates within the first few days of birth as hemipenes become increasingly difficult to evert as neonates age, however, with practice they are easily identified without full eversion. SECTION TWO The thermal biology of E. tympanum in the field is restricted by both the thermal properties of their habitat (Chapter 3) and behavioural modifications when faced with a predation threat (Chapter 4). The available temperatures in the field suggest that TSD is biologically relevant in the species and not just a laboratory artefact; E. tympanum can attain mean selected temperatures achieved in the laboratory but the proportion of time at the temperature is restricted. Females actively thermoregulate in the field, although they are restricted in their efficiency of thermoregulation by environmental constraints, for example, microhabitat structure, weather conditions, predator avoidance and social ranking. The highly territorial nature and high densities of E. tympanum present in Kanangra Boyd National Park potentially force less dominant individuals into less favourable habitats that are significantly cooler. An important point is that gravid females in more favourable habitats in the period encompassing the middle third of development (the assumed sex determining period) are selecting higher temperatures, with lower variance and have greater thermoregulatory efficiency than during the rest of pregnancy, therefore, thermoregulating more precisely during this thermosensitive period (Chapter 3). Chemosensory cues provide important information on the risk of predation. Hence, chemoreception is a common mechanism used by many species to detect the presence of, and subsequently respond to, a potential predator. The perceived risk of predation may force retreat to sub-optimal conditions, forcing a trade-off between the risk of predation and the ability to acquire resources. The basking regime maintained by gravid female E. tympanum, can directly alter sex ratios of offspring produced through temperature-dependent sex determination (Chapter 1). The avoidance of predator scents may restrict basking ability and in turn alter the sex of offspring produced. I measured responsiveness to chemical cues using tongue flicks as an indicator of chemical discrimination in females of different reproductive condition. I then measured activity and basking behaviour of gravid and non-gravid females in experimental enclosures in the presence of various chemical stimuli to determine if basking opportunity is compromised by the presence of a predator scent. Females respond differently depending upon reproductive condition, with gravid females responding most significantly to a predator scent. Activity, basking frequency, and time spent in the open (basking duration) are significantly reduced in gravid females in the presence of a predator stimulus. Under laboratory conditions, gravid females modify their behaviour and forego the opportunity to bask when there is a perceived predation risk (Chapter 4). SECTION THREE As female viviparous reptiles can regulate the temperature of the embryo by maternal temperature selection (Chapter 1), the occurrence of TSD in E. tympanum opens the possibility for females to select the sex of offspring. Reproducing females may benefit by facultatively adjusting their investment into sons over daughters or vice versa, in response to population wide shifts in adult sex ratios. Female E. tympanum, can manipulate the sex of their offspring in response to sex imbalances in the population using temperature-dependent sex determination (Chapter 5). When adult males are scarce, females produce male-biased litters and when adult males are common, females produce female-biased litters. The cues used by a female to assess the adult population are not known, but presumably depends upon the female�s experience throughout the breeding season and is the subject of further investigation (Chapter 6). The maternal manipulation of offspring sex ratio in E. tympanum suggests a selective advantage of temperature-dependent sex determination. Any facultative sex ratio response needs to recognise the scarcity of one sex in order to overproduce that sex in the next generation; offspring sex ratio will vary inversely with adult sex ratio. Maternal sex allocation in E. tympanum is linked with population (or adult) sex ratio (Chapter 5), and one of the mechanisms by which females recognise an imbalance may be linked to visual recognition of males (Chapter 6). Females maintained throughout pregnancy without any male stimulus produce entirely male offspring (Chapter 5). In contrast females exposed to male stimulus produce both sexes (Chapter 5). Females respond differently to varying degrees of male stimulus and visual recognition of males in a population may be more important than chemoreception. In the absence of visual cues, females produce more male offspring, even when chemosensory cues are present (Chapter 6). The study system presented here offers many advantages over oviparous species with TSD, due to E. tympanum being relatively short lived and fast maturing. Thus, the fitness consequences over multiple generations as a result of gestation can be investigated. Viviparity allows maternal control of embryonic temperature during gestation and a means of maternal sex allocation. Until now the maternal side of TSD and sex allocation has been where the mother deposits her eggs and the allocation of sex steroid hormones at oviposition, both of which have been difficult to study. The work presented and the study system itself should inspire great interest in TSD and viviparous reptiles.

In the red-eared slider turtle, Trachemys scripta, gonadal sex is determined by the incubation temperature during the mid-trimester of development; temperature effects can be overridden by exogenous ligands if they are administered during the temperature-sensitive period of development. How the physical signal of temperature is transduced into a biological signal that ultimately results in determining gonad sex is not known. My thesis research focuses on five candidate sex determining genes: cyp19a1 (aromatase), Forkhead box protein L2, R-spondin1, Doublesex mab3-related transcription factor 1, and Sex-determining Region on Y chromosome-box 9. The first three genes are markers of ovarian differentiation while the latter two genes are markers of testicular differentiation. Both in ovo (egg) and in vitro (gonadal explants) studies were conducted. Chapters 1 and 2 examine how exogenous steroid ligands interact with candidate genes as the gonads differentiate into testes or ovaries. Topical application of testosterone with aromatase inhibitor to eggs incubating at the female-producing temperature (31 ºC; FPT) suppresses expression of ovarian markers while increasing expression of testicular markers. Administration of 17β-estradiol (E2) to eggs incubating at a male-producing temperature (26 ºC; MPT) increases expression of ovarian markers while testicular markers are suppressed. This suggests that exogenous ligands modify gonadal trajectory by re-directing (suppression and activation) the expression of candidate genes. Chapter 3 identifies the gonad-specific promoter and the temperature-dependent DNA methylation signatures of the aromatase gene during gonadal differentiation. DNA methylation of the aromatase promoter is lowest at FPT relative to MPT. Exogenous E2 and certain polychlorinated biphenyls retain typical methylation patterns observed at MPT (Chapter 4). This suggests that despite the ability of exogenous ligands to alter the transcriptional profiles and gonad phenotypes, the MPT set the temperature typical epigenetic marks first at the beginning of TSP. Recruitment of modified histone proteins, H3K4me3 and H3K27me3, at the aromatase promoter is FPT-specific during gonad determination. Temperature shift experiments suggest a lack of histone enrichment is due to MPT cue, but is not reversible by FPT. Preliminary analysis of modified histones by Next-generation sequencing shows high duplication levels across samples, leaving room for technical improvement in future study.

No description available.

Typescript. / Bibliography: leaves 166-171. / Microfiche. / xiv, 171 leaves, bound ill. 29 cm

No description available.