Yes / Understanding the chronology of Norse settlement is crucial for deciphering the archaeology of many sites across the North Atlantic region and developing a timeline of human-environment interactions. There is ambiguity in the chronology of settlements in areas such as the Northern Isles of Scotland, arising from the lack of published sites that have been scientifically dated, the presence of plateaus in the radiocarbon calibration curve, and the use of inappropriate samples for dating. This novel study uses four absolute dating techniques (AMS radiocarbon, tephrochronology, spheroidal carbonaceous particles and archaeomagnetism) to date a Norse house (the “Upper House”), Underhoull, Unst, Shetland Isles and to interpret the chronology of settlement and peat which envelops the site. Dates were produced from hearths, activity surfaces within the structure, and peat accumulations adjacent to and above the structure. Stratigraphic evidence was used to assess sequences of dates within a Bayesian framework, constraining the chronology for the site as well as providing modelled estimates for key events in its life, namely the use, modification and abandonment of the settlement. The majority of the absolute dating methods produced consistent and coherent datasets. The overall results show that occupation at the site was not a short, single phase, as suggested initially from the excavated remains, but instead a settlement that continued throughout the Norse period. The occupants of the site built the longhouse in a location adjacent to an active peatland, and continued to live there despite the encroachment of peat onto its margins. We estimate that the Underhoull longhouse was constructed in the period cal. AD 805–1050 (95% probability), and probably in cal. AD 880–1000 (68% probability). Activity within the house ceased in the period cal. AD 1230–1495 (95% probability), and most probably in cal. AD 1260–1380 (68% probability). The Upper House at Underhoull provides important context to the expansion and abandonment of Norse settlement across the wider North Atlantic region.

Geóloga / En el siguiente estudio se describe la geología de President Head, una pequeña península libre de hielo que se ubica en el extremo nororiental de isla Snow, en el archipiélago Shetland del Sur. Se realizó una campaña a terreno en el mes de febrero de 2013 con el objetivo de estudiar la evolución paleoambiental de las unidades para contextualizarlas dentro de la paleogeografía propuesta para la región de la península Antártica en el Cretácico Temprano. Para estos fines se elaboró un mapa geológico, se levantaron columnas estratigráficas y se realizó un estudio petrográfico de las rocas aflorantes. Los niveles estratigráficos inferiores de President Head corresponden a una unidad sedimentaria marina de brechas, areniscas, lutitas y fangolitas asociada a una serie de flujos gravitacionales submarinos, a la cual es posible asignar una edad valanginiana media según la presencia de fragmentos de un amonite que correspondería a la género Olcostephanus. Estos estratos se correlacionan con las Formaciones President Beaches o Chester Cone del Grupo Byers en isla Livingston. Separada por una discordancia erosiva de edad valanginiana tardía - barremiana, posiblemente asociada al levantamiento y progresión hacia el oeste del arco volcánico de la península Antártica, se encuentra una unidad volcano-sedimentaria continental, compuesta por una alternancia de lutitas, fangolitas y areniscas, con tobas y conglomerados en niveles superiores. Los niveles finos, depositados probablemente en la llanura de inundación de un pequeño río meándrico, son ricos en fósiles vegetales de Bennettitales principalmente, afines a una edad aptiana - aptiana tardía. La datación de una tufita de la porción inferior de la sucesión mediante el método U/Pb en circones, arrojó una edad albiana temprana (109 ± 1,4 Ma), a partir de lo cual se infiere que esta unidad correspondería a un nivel estratigráficamente superior de la Formación Cerro Negro presente en península Byers (isla Livingston) durante un segundo pulso volcánico. Toda la sucesión se encuentra intruida por numerosos diques, sills y pequeños stocks doleríticos de edad indeterminada (probablemente eocena), asociados al magmatismo Cenozoico que afectó en forma extensiva al archipiélago Shetland del Sur y a la península Antártica. Se concluye que durante el Cretácico Temprano península President Head formó parte de la Cuenca Byers, cuya evolución se encuentra íntimamente ligada al desarrollo del arco volcánico de la península Antártica. Entre el Kimmeridgiano y el Albiano temprano ésta registra una transición discontinua de sedimentación pelágica/hemipelágica a un abanico de talud submarino profundo, seguido de sistemas marinos someros a, finalmente, un ambiente volcánico fluvial y lacustre. Una evolución similar es observada en las islas Adelaida y Alejandro I.

The Northern Isles are strongly influenced by changes in the North Atlantic Ocean atmosphere system and, as they project northwards from the British Isles, provide an ideal geographical opportunity to study changing climatic gradients during the last glacial/interglacial transition along with the detection of regime shifts. Three proxies, diatoms, pollen, and micro-XRF sediment chemistry, have been employed to explore the nature and timing of environmental changes within the water columns and the wider catchments of Loch of Sabiston, Orkney, and Loch of Clumlie and Loch of Grimsetter, Shetland to better understand the nature and timing of environmental change within and among the island groups. The records are constrained by radiocarbon dating, supported by tephrochronology, and the Greenland ice core chronology to enable the comparison of the records produced by this study with previous research in the North Atlantic region. The diatom and lithological results from Loch of Sabiston suggest early deglaciation at c. 23,000 cal BP followed by gradual warming (GI-1e) punctuated by the cooling events coeval with GS-1 and GI-1b. However, the pollen record reflects a lagged response in the development from colonising cold tolerant vegetation to more temperate shrub and woodland communities. The Oracadian signal is dominated by the switching on and off of the accumulation of marl which serves as a supporting indicator of warmer conditions. The Shetland landscape appears to have been deglaciated later at c. 16,400 cal BP, but also has clear representation of GI-1e and the cooling events of GI-1b and GS-1. Both the Shetland and Orkney records record the dramatic cooling of the Younger Dryas but also suggest a two stage change from colder and drier to colder and wetter conditions before the onset of the Holocene. Shetland appears to have experienced less extreme climatic changes in comparison to Orkney despite being in the same present phytogeographical region. This is likely due to the former persisting in the arctic domain and the latter being closer to the latitudinal shifts in the warmer ocean circulation of the North Atlantic during the LGIT. Comparison of the three proxies demonstrates that they may differ by several hundred years in their response to dramatic climatic changes and, therefore, highlights the strength of multi-proxy approaches to reconstructing Quaternary environments. Combining proxies such as diatom and μ-XRF scanning techniques will provide a greater understanding of the processes occurring during environmental change in this region.

The Great War was an enormous global cataclysm affecting the lives of all inhabitants of the combatant countries and many others. The effects were not uniform, however, and, by assessing the experience of the people of Shetland, this thesis shows how a local history can enhance understanding of the nuances of an international event. The Shetlanders’ experience was similar in many ways to that of other communities, but had aspects that were unusual or even unique. Both local and national sources are used to investigate how the Shetland experience fitted into historiographical discourses on the war. These include: contrasting depictions of the pre-war era as a ‘Golden Age’ or a period of upheaval and conflict; the extent of militarism in pre-war British society; the putative reasons for volunteering for armed service and the controversy about conscription; reactions to the outbreak of war and attitudes towards the enemy and the Government’s handling of the war; the situation of women; and the extent of change and continuity at the re-adaptation to peace. In addition, the thesis explores two related and recurring themes. One of the profound influences on Shetland was its geographical location, which is related here to theories about local and regional history and concepts of ‘islandness’, ‘peripherality’ and ‘place’. Assertions of a Shetland communal consciousness and identity related to a distinctive local experience are also scrutinised. The disparate effects of the war are studied through the experience of different sections of the population. Despite their perceived remoteness, Shetlanders were aware of prewar international antagonisms, especially as their islands became important for Britain’s defence and war strategy and their patriotism came under suspicion. This resulted in recruitment, deployment and casualties for the local armed forces being atypical in the UK. Servicemen’s contemporary writing showed both conformity to prevalent themes and affirmations of local identity. Shetland provided a base for naval operations important to Britain’s victory; relationships between the Navy and Shetlanders were sometimes difficult and visiting servicemen perceived Shetland as remote and different. Examination of the economic consequences of the war and the reactions of Shetland society illustrates how the community’s identity was expressed in the war effort and strengthened, even when national interests were paramount. Finally, commemoration is recognised as both a national movement and an expression of local identity and pride in Shetland’s contribution to victory.

An area of Shetland is examined in order to identify how Iron Age settlements might have related to each other. The study area contains two brochs. An inter-disciplinary approach is used to identify evidence for other Iron Age settlements and the information is presented as a model illustrating the pattern of settlement at different points during the Iron Age. A distinction is drawn between locations containing field archaeology and locations where occupation is predicted on the basis of evidence such as soil quality or place name. The whole model is then examined in order to identify patterns which may suggest changing relationships between settlements and groups of settlements, and the trends and influences behind these. Next an appraisal is made of the settlements' relative status and authority during Shetland's Early, Middle and Late Iron Age. By looking at the whole landscape through time - before, during and after the Iron Age - the brochs are set in a wider chronological context which takes into account the changing role that these highly visible monuments may have played as socio-economic focal points in a developing landscape. The outcome reveals complexity. Initially the brochs appear to be a focus of settlement patterns but by the end of the Late Iron Age they are rivalled by a non-broch area which shows signs of heightened Pictish influence. Elsewhere in Shetland at this period there is retrenchment to broch-settlements, raising the question of how far developments in the study area are unique to that location.

The investigation of the role of basin-scale forcing on the circulation of the Faroe-Shetland Channel (FSC) is important to further understanding of the inter-annual variability of the Atlantic water (AW) fluxes in this region. The FSC plays a key role in the transfer of warm and saline AW towards the Nordic Seas that is an integral part of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation which is projected to decline over the twenty-first century and might reduce the oceanic heat and salt transports towards the Arctic. So far little attention has been paid to the mechanisms driving the AW fluxes in the FSC, reliable estimates of AW temperature and salt transports time series are lacking. This study presents a new time series of the AW fluxes based on the combination of hydrography and altimetry data. The mechanisms involved in driving the variability of AW fluxes are considered based on observational data and the output from a high-resolution ocean model (VIKING20). The hydrographic observations from 1993 to 2015 show an increase in temperature and salinity of AW. However, there is no evidence of trends in AW volume, temperature or salt transports during the observed period. This analysis confirms that the amount of heat and salt transported through the FSC is dominated by the volume transport. Moreover, this study identifies a bias in the standard deviation of the geostrophic velocity at a depth associated with referencing the geostrophic calculations to the sea surface geostrophic velocity from satellite altimetry. This finding does not strongly influence the AW volume transports in the AW layer, however, it has important implications for estimates of the geostrophic volume transport at depth. This study shows that the Ekman driven up/downwelling and the differential Ekman pumping mechanisms driven by the local wind forcing may influence sea surface height (SSH) and the displacement of isopycnals in the channel, leading to AW volume transport variabilit However, due to the large associated error bars on the surface and subsurface parameters, there is no clear evidence that these mechanisms are significantly responsible for the AW volume transport variability in the FSC. Lagrangian trajectories show evidence of two pathways from the North Atlantic to the FSC that may explain AW variability in the FSC: one pathway involves the flow of warm and saline waters from the Rockall Trough that corresponds to high temperatures and low AW volume transport in the channel, and the other pathway involves the flow of relatively cooler and less saline waters from the Iceland Basin that is linked to low temperatures and stronger volume transport in the FSC. Moreover, we show that the first (second) pathway is associated with the negative (positive) phases of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and the ocean gyre contraction (expansion). The changes of the NAO index phases explain 26 % of the AW volume transport variance in the FSC. Another important mechanism that leads to stronger (weaker) AW volume transport is stronger (weaker) pressure gradient across the Greenland-Scotland Ridge, reflected by the SSH changes. This mechanism explains 29 % of AW volume transport variance in the FSC.

The aim of this thesis is to understand the role of geomorphological change in the abandonment of Norse harbours in the North Atlantic. Nodes of maritime activities that were established by Norse settlers during the Scandinavian Viking Age often developed into important towns and cities. Some of these, however, disappeared for unknown reasons. Norse harbours in the North Atlantic varied in scale. They ranged from small landing beaches used by small boats for local use through to much larger anchorages handling considerable trade and being important nodes on the transatlantic trading network. Changes in coastal geomorphology necessitated a response from seafarers. In this thesis, a conceptual framework for the formation, recovery and stability of headland-dominated sandy beaches in high-energy environments is established, based on empirical observation and on the use of the MIKE21 numerical sediment transport model. Under persistent calm climatic conditions, nearshore seabed gradient is a weak control on beach formation and persistence in embayments. However, under persistent stormy conditions, nearshore sea bed gradient becomes the prominent control. Embayments with nearshore gradients of > 0.025 m/m inhibit beach recovery on a sub-annual timescale, while gradients < 0.025 m/m promote beach recovery. These ideas are assessed in the Shetland Islands, using numerical modelling, geomorphology and OSL dating on sand blow deposits. In the late Norse era beach landing sites in Unst became prone to depletion and destruction because of increased storminess. Numerical modelling (MIKE21) supports the idea that the recovery time of different sandy beaches on Unst is dependent on average nearshore slope. The beach at Sandwick has shallow nearshore gradients and recovers quickly in the face of storminess, but beach stability at Lunda Wick is more uncertain, and thus Lunda Wick represents a more problematic landing place. The Norse harbour of The Bishop's seat at Garðar in the Eastern Settlement of Greenland is assessed to evaluate the impacts of gradual long term geomorphological change on coastlines that lack soft-sediment. A high resolution, near shore bathymetric survey shows that, due to relative sea level rise of 1 m/500 years, the landing site became more difficult to access during the later period of Norse settlement and key onshore infrastructure was disrupted. The possible role of terrestrial supplies of sediment in changing the viability of landing places is assessed through an evaluation of the Norse trading centre of Gásir in northern Iceland. Geomorphological mapping and analysis of fluvial connectivity indicate that the delta on which Gásir is located is prone to aggradation from large, irregular pulses of sediment derived from landslides in the catchment. Written sources and geomorphological mapping indicate geomorphological changes around the same time that trade was shifting to the use of boats with a deeper draft. Cultural change and environmental changes would have reinforced each other in rendering the harbour site nonviable. Geomorphological forces acting on varying spatial and temporal scales have the potential to disrupt the use of landing sites. Whether environmental changes led to the abandonment of a landing site was strongly influenced by the seafarers' competence and available technology. Higher levels of competence would enable more problematic landing sites to be used, but there are limits to this adaptation. Technological changes, such as the use of larger and deeper draft boats, would have changed the geomorphic requirements for harbour sites, and thus may have led to a passive abandonment of the site over time rather than active abandonment such as that in the face of a catastrophic change of the shoreline. Coastal geomorphology was a critical factor affecting the use of Norse harbours, as it interacted with the wider cultural and economic developments in the North Atlantic realm. This thesis demonstrates that numerical sediment transport analysis is a powerful tool in coastal archaeological research as it can illuminate processes driving observable changes in the empirical record.

Problem: Die Hyperlipidämie der Ponys ist eine schwerwiegende Erkrankung, die nicht selten letal endet. Eckpunkt der Pathogenese ist die Insulinresistenz in Verbindung mit proinflammatorischen Zytokinen sowie Antioxidantien. Wenn einerseits die grundlegenden pathophysiologischen Abläufe bekannt sind, gelingt nicht immer eine erfolgreiche Therapie. Es ist auch nicht bekannt, inwieweit der Übergang von der Trächtigkeit zur Laktation ätiologische Risiken birgt. Zielstellung: Ziel dieser Studie war es zu prüfen, inwieweit bei Shetlandponystuten der Übergang von der Hochträchtigkeit über das Abfohlen zur Säugeperiode Risiken für die Hyperlipidämie birgt. Neben den Parametern des Energie-Fett-Leberstoffwechsels wurde auch analysiert, ob bei Endotoxinen und Antioxidantien (TEAC) belastende Veränderungen in diesem Zeitraum auftreten, die eine gesteigerte Fettmobilisation begünstigen. Versuchsanordnung: Es wurden 15 gesunde, gut genährte Shetlandpony-Stuten ohne Fohlen bei Fuß ca. vier bis acht Wochen nach der erfolgreichen Bedeckung, maximal 24 Stunden (h) ante partum (a. p.), maximal vier Stunden, 12-16 Stunden und drei Wochen post partum (p. p.) klinisch untersucht und Blutproben (Vena jugularis externa) entnommen. Im Blutserum wurden die Parameter Triacylglycerole (TG), Freie Fettsäuren (FFS), Cholesterol, β-Hydroxy-Butyrat (BHB), Glucose, Gesamtbilirubin, Aspartat-Amino-Transferase (ASAT), Glutamat-Dehydrogenase (GLDH), γ-Glutaminsäure-Transaminase (GGT), Alkalische Phosphatase (AP), Totalprotein (TP), Albumin, Harnstoff, Creatinin, Creatinkinase (CK), Endotoxin sowie der antioxidative Summenparameter TEAC untersucht. Ergebnisse: Trächtigkeit, Abfohlen sowie Säugeperiode verliefen bei den Stuten physiologisch. Unter den Blutbefunden waren die Hauptveränderungen bei den TG und FFS sowie bei den Endotoxinen und bei der CK 24 h a. p. zu beobachten. Die TG waren mit \"x\" ̅ = 0,18 mmol/l (0,15-0,38 mmol/l I. bis III. Quartil) 4–8 Wochen (Wo) post conceptionem (p. c.) bereits erhöht und stiegen bis 24 h a. p. auf \"x\" ̅ = 0,27 mmol/l (0,16–0,44 mmol/l) (p ≤ 0,05); ab 4 h p. p. bis 3 Wo p. p. bewegten sie sich zwischen \"x\" ̅ = 0,14 und \"x\" ̅ = 0,19 mmol/l auf gleichem Niveau. Die TG korrelierten am engsten und häufigsten mit Cholesterol (0,66), Albumin (0,58), Creatinin (0,81) und Harnstoff (-0,61), was vor allem aus deren Zusammensetzung resultiert. Die TG-Konzentrationssteigerung direkt vor dem Abfohlen ist durch den Cortisolanstieg zum Partus erklärbar. Die Mediane der FFS-Konzentrationen lagen 4-8 Wo p. c. sowie 4 h p. p. bei \"x\" ̅ = 128 µmol/l (95-197 µmol/l), sanken 24 h a. p. auf \"x\" ̅ = 75 µmol/l (64–198 µmol/l) und pegelten sich von 12–16 h bis 3 Wo p. p. bei \"x\" ̅ = 80 µmol/l (70–100 µmol/l) ein. Die FFS-Korrelationen mit Bilirubin (0,35) und Creatinin (0,35) basieren auf den pathophysiologischen Beziehungen, ohne dass damit ätiologische Bezüge ausgewiesen werden. Die Glucose-Konzentrationen waren immer im Referenzbereich. Die höchsten Konzentrationen bestanden partusbedingt 4 h (5,24 ± 1,39 mmol/l) bis 12-16 h p. p. (4,92 ± 1,67 mmol/l). Die Beziehungen der Glucose zum Energiestoffwechsel werden durch gesicherte Korrelationen zu BHB (-0,41) und der AP (-0,29) sichtbar. Beziehungen zu den FFS oder Endotoxinen sind statisitisch nicht gesichert. Die CK-Aktivitäten schwankten im Kontrollzeitraum zwischen \"x\" ̅ = 330 bis 420 U/l (300-500 U/l); 24 h a. p. lagen sie mit \"x\" ̅ = 277 U/l (197–334 U/l) als potentielle Folge der partusbedingten Cortisolsteigerung signifikant niedriger. Das Abfohlen an sich führt zu moderater CK-Aktivitätssteigerung. Die Harnstoff-Konzentrationen zeigten einen signifikanten Anstieg von 4-8 Wo p. c. mit \"x\" ̅ = 5,75 ± 1,01 mmol/l bis auf \"x\" ̅ = 6,42 ± 1,10 mmol/l 3 Wo p. p. Gesicherte Korrelationen des Harnstoffs zum BHB machen die Stoffwechselsteigerung p. p. für den Konzentrationsanstieg wahrscheinlich. Die Bilirubin-Konzentration nimmt von 12 auf 8 µmol/l im Kontrollverlauf ab, ebenso die AP-Aktivitäten von 780 auf 580 U/l und ASAT-Aktivitäten von 395 auf ca. 300 U/l. Die GGT- sowie GLDH-Aktivitäten sind zu Beginn der Untersuchungen mit 17 bzw. 6 U/l niedrig und steigen bei der letzten Kontrolle 3 Wo p. p. um ca. 50% signifikant, aber immer noch im physiologischen Bereich, an. Eine stärkere Leberbelastung lässt sich aus diesen Parametern nicht ableiten. Die Endotoxin-Konzentrationen sind p. p. am niedrigsten und an der Nachweisgrenze. Die signifikante Konzentrationssteigerung 24 h a. p. lässt an Beziehungen zu den gesteigerten TG und den erniedrigten FFS sowie der CK als Folge der ansteigenden Cortisol-Konzentration vor dem Partus denken. Gesicherte Korrelationen bestehen vor allem zu den Antioxidantien (TEAC), d. h., dass die Endotoxine den antioxidativen Status belasten. Die Cholesterol-, TP-, Albumin-, Creatinin- sowie TEAC-Konzentrationen blieben im gesamten Untersuchungszeitraum praktisch physiologisch konstant. Schlussfolgerungen: Gesunde, gut genährte Shetlandponystuten zeigen während der Trächtigkeit, dem Abfohlen und in der Säugeperiode einen stabilen Stoffwechsel. Eine stärkere Belastung wird 24 h vor dem Partus anhand der TG und Endotoxine erkennbar, die offensichtlich Folge der steigenden partusinduzierenden Cortisol-Konzentration sind.

This thesis provides detailed studies of settlement on four Faroese islands and in four districts of Shetland in order to isolate and explain differences and similarities between the two island groups. These studies examine topography, place-names, relationships with previous settlements, church distribution, settlement expansion, inter-relationship of settlements and land assessments. The range of sources and methods are set out in the Introduction. The first Regional Study presents two districts of Western Norway, Fjaler and Gaular, which are discussed to illustrate some of the major trends of settlement in the homeland. Detailed studies are then made of settlements on the four Faroese islands of Fugloy, Streymoy, Sandoy and Suduroy and in the four Shetland districts of Fetlar, Delting, Walls and Sandness, and Tingwall. A section arranged thematically follows, bringing together results from the Regional Studies and referring more generally to the whole of Shetland and Faroe. This section examines three themes: firstly, the relationship between the Norse settlers and pre-Norse populations; secondly, the development of the Scattalds and bygdir; -and thirdly, naming patterns. Despite very great differences in the extent of settlement prior to the arrival of the Norse in Faroe and Shetland, primary settlement patterns are essentially similar. The Scattalds and bygdir represent comparable settlement districts and reflect similar agricultural requirements and responses to the landscape while primary settlement sites in both island groups generally feature good harbours and extensive cultivable land with topographical names descriptive of their coastal location. Secondary settlement expansion takes different forms in Faroe and Shetland, however, and this is reflected in nomenclature, in particular the absence of the habitative elements stadir, bolstadr and setr from Faroe. It is concluded that the absence or presence of habitative place-name elements is dependent on the nature of settlement expansion.

Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of Glasgow, 2008. / Ph.D. thesis submitted to the Faculty of Arts, Departments of Archaeology and History, University of Glasgow, 2008. Includes bibliographical references. Print version also available.