O gene SLC45A2 codifica a proteína MATP, envolvida na síntese de melanina através do processamento e transporte intracelular da tirosinase e transporte de prótons para o melanossomo. Por sua vez, a tirosinase, codificada pelo gene TYR, catalisa os dois primeiros passos da conversão de tirosina em melanina, além de atuar em uma etapa final da biossíntese de eumelanina. Considerando que polimorfismos nestes genes influenciam a variação de características normais de pigmentação, que somente recentemente mais informações sobre a função do gene SLC45A2 foram descobertas e que diversas questões sobre o envolvimento da tirosinase nos fenótipos normais de pigmentação ainda permanecem sem total compreensão, é necessário o melhor entendimento das interações entre as variantes desses genes de pigmentação e moléculas regulatórias, assim como o conhecimento sobre a diversidade de tais genes em uma população miscigenada como a brasileira. Dessa forma, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo analisar a diversidade genética das regiões, promotora, codificante e 3\'UTR dos genes SLC45A2 e TYR em uma amostra da população brasileira. As regiões regulatórias e codificadoras dos genes SLC45A2 e TYR foram analisadas por sequenciamento de nova geração em uma amostra de 340 indivíduos, estratificados de acordo com a pigmentação dos olhos, cabelos e pele, bem como quanto à presença ou ausência de sardas. Bibliotecas de DNA foram preparadas utilizando o Haloplex Target Enrichment System (Agilent Technologies) e sequenciadas por meio da plataforma MiSeq (Illumina). Os softwares cutadapt, BWA e GATK/VCFx foram utilizados para trimagem dos adaptadores, alinhamento e chamada de variantes, respectivamente. O programa PHASE foi utilizado para a reconstrução dos haplótipos. Um total de 58 variantes foram identificadas no gene SLC45A2. Destas, 28 foram associadas a pelo menos uma das características de pigmentação avaliadas. Embora as regiões nãocodificadoras tenham apresentado maior diversidade genética, associações significativas também foram encontradas em regiões exônicas. Dentre estas, destaca-se a associação do alelo rs16891982*G (exon 5, Leu374Phe) com pele clara (p = 9,54 x 10-35, OR = 22,66) e cabelos loiros (p = 1,59 x 10-26, OR = 31,72). Quando observamos os haplótipos inferidos para as regiões codificantes das isoformas 1 e 2 que possuem esse SNP e as associações encontradas, podemos notar que os únicos haplótipos associados com fenótipos de pigmentação claros para ambas isoformas [\"Iso2cds1\": pele clara (p = 3,65 x 10-29, OR =22,63) e cabelos loiros (p = 6,34 x 10-23, OR = 26,19); \"Iso1cds1\": pele clara (p = 1,08 x 10-24, OR = 17,38) e cabelos loiros (p = 1,94 x 10-22, OR = 22,93)] possuem como diferença em relação a todos os outros haplótipos associados com pigmentação escura o alelo rs16891982*G. Para o gene TYR foram identificadas 42 variantes e 15 se mostraram associadas a algum dos fenótipos de pigmentação avaliados. A maior parte da diversidade desse gene foi encontrada na região intrônica, com ênfase para a associação do genótipo rs1393350*A/A com olhos azuis (p = 0,0253, OR = 13,06) e cabelos castanho-claros (p = 0,0019, OR = 16,07). Ao analisarmos as associações encontradas para os haplótipos inferidos para essa região, podemos notar que os haplótipos \"cds5\" (p = 1,71 x 10-05, OR = 21,26), \"cds7\" (p = 0,0061, OR = 23,70) e \"cds9\" (p = 0,0017, OR = 29,25) estão associados a pele escura e o haplótipo \"cds12\" (p = 0,015, OR = 21,61) a ausência de sardas. Quando nos atentamos a composição desses haplótipos em relação ao SNP rs1393350, podemos perceber que todos os haplótipos possuem o alelo referência (rs1393350*G), o que é consistente com a associação entre o genótipo (rs1393350*A/A) e fenótipos de pigmentação claros. Os resultados aqui encontrados reafirmam a importância desempenhada pelos genes SLC45A2 e TYR na geração da diversidade de fenótipos de pigmentação. / The SLC45A2 gene encodes the Membrane-Associated Transporter Protein, which mediates melanin synthesis by tyrosinase trafficking and proton transportation to melanosomes. On the other hand, the tyrosinase protein, encoded by the TYR gene, catalyzes the first two steps of tyrosine to melanin conversion in addition to acting in a final stage of eumelanin biosynthesis. Considering that polymorphisms in these genes influence normal pigmentation variation, that only recently more information about SLC45A2 gene function were discovered and that many questions about the tyrosinase involvement in normal pigmentation phenotypes are still not fully understood, it is necessary to better understand the interactions between variants in these pigmentation genes and regulatory molecules, as well as to improve knowledge about their diversity in a mixed population like the Brazilian one. Thus, the present study aimed at analyzing the genetic diversity of the promoter, coding and 3\'UTR regions from the SLC45A2 and TYR genes in a Brazilian admixed population sample (n=340). The regulatory and coding regions were analyzed by next-generation sequencing procedures. The individuals were stratified according to eye, hair and skin pigmentation, as well as to the presence or absence of freckles. DNA libraries were prepared using the Haloplex Target Enrichment System (Agilent Technologies) and sequenced at the MiSeq platform (Illumina). cutadapt, BWA and GATK/VCFx software packages were used for trimming adaptor sequences, alignment and genotype calling, respectively. The PHASE program was used for haplotypes reconstruction. A total of 58 variation sites were identified in the SLC45A2 gene. Of these, 28 were found in association with at least one of the analyzed pigmentation characteristics. Although the non-coding regions were more diverse, the exonic region also showed significant associations. Among them, the association of the rs16891982*G allele (exon 5, Leu374Phe) with light skin (p = 9.54 x 10-35, OR = 22.66) and blond hair (p = 1.59 x 10-26, OR = 31.72) stands out. When we observe the inferred haplotypes for the isoforms 1 and 2 coding regions that have this SNP and the associations found, we can recognize that haplotypes associated with light pigmentation phenotypes [\"Iso2cds1\": light skin (p = 3.65 x 10-29, OR = 22.63) and blond hair (p = 6.34 x 10-23, OR = 26.19); \"Iso1cds1\": light skin (p = 1.08 x 10-24, OR = 17.38) and blond hair (p = 1.94 x 10-22, OR = 22.93)] have the rs16891982*G allele, while haplotypes associated with dark pigmentation harbors the other one. Forty-two variation sites wereidentified for the TYR gene and 15 of them were associated with one of the evaluated pigmentation phenotypes. Most of the diversity of this gene was found in the intronic region, with emphasis on the association of genotype rs1393350*A/A with blue eyes (p = 0.0253, OR = 13.06) and light brown hair (p = 0.0019, OR = 16.07). When we analyze the associations found for the inferred haplotypes for this region, we can note that the haplotypes \"cds5\" (p = 1.71 x 10-05, OR = 21.25), \"cds7\" (p = 0.0061, OR = 23.70) and \"cds9\" (p = 0.0017, OR = 29.25) were associated with dark skin and the haplotype \"cds12\" (p = 0.015, OR = 21.61) with absence of freckles. When the composition of the haplotypes concerning this SNP (rs1393350) is taken into account, we can see that all haplotypes have the reference allele (rs1393350*G), which is consistent with the association between the rs1393350*A/A genotype and lighter pigmentation phenotypes. These findings provide additional support to the role played by SLC45A2 and TYR in the generation of pigmentation phenotypes diversity

Coat color and patterning phenotypes have been extensively studied as a model for advancing our understanding of the relationship between genetic and phenotypic variation. In this thesis, genes of relevance for pigment cell biology were investigated. The dissertation is divided in two parts. Forward genetics was used in the first part (Paper I and II) to identify the genes controlling the Silver and Sex-linked barring loci in chicken. In the second part, reverse genetics was employed to create a mouse line in which the PMEL17 protein is inactivated (Paper III). In Paper I, we report five mutations in SLC45A2 causing plumage color variants in both chicken and Japanese quail. Normal function of the SLC45A2 gene has previously been shown to be essential for the synthesis of both red/yellow pigment (pheomelanin) and brown/black pigment (eumelanin) in numerous species, including humans. The major discovery in this paper is the specific inhibition of pheomelanin in Silver chickens, whilst null mutations at this locus cause an almost complete absence of both pheomelanin and eumelanin. In Paper II, we report that Sex-linked barring in chickens is controlled by the CDKN2A/B tumor suppressor locus. The locus encodes two proteins, INK4B and ARF. The genetic analysis indicates that missense mutations in ARF or mutations in the promoter region of the ARF transcript are causing Sex-linked barring. In previous studies, mutations inactivating the CDKN2A/B tumor suppressor locus, have been shown to be responsible for familiar forms of human melanoma. Here we propose that these mutations in chicken CDKN2A/B cause the premature cell death of melanocytes as opposed to the cell proliferation and tumor growth associated with loss-of-function alleles in humans. In Paper III, we created a mouse line in which the PMEL17 protein is inactivated. Missense mutations in the gene encoding PMEL17 have previously been shown to be associated with reduced levels of eumelanin in epidermal tissues in several vertebrate species. The knockout mice are viable, fertile, and display no obvious developmental defects. The eumelanosomes within the melanocytes of these mice are spherical in contrast to the cigar-like shaped eumelanosomes present in wild-type animals. PMEL17 protein inactivation has only a subtle diluting effect on the coat color phenotype in four different genetic backgrounds. This suggests that other previously described alleles in vertebrates with more striking effects on pigmentation are dominant-negative mutations.

This work is concerned with the genetic basis of normal human pigmentation variation. Specifically, the role of polymorphisms within the solute carrier family 45 member 2 (SLC45A2 or membrane associated transporter protein; MATP) gene were investigated with respect to variation in hair, skin and eye colour ― both between and within populations. SLC45A2 is an important regulator of melanin production and mutations in the gene underly the most recently identified form of oculocutaneous albinism. There is evidence to suggest that non-synonymous polymorphisms in SLC45A2 are associated with normal pigmentation variation between populations. Therefore, the underlying hypothesis of this thesis is that polymorphisms in SLC45A2 will alter the function or regulation of the protein, thereby altering the important role it plays in melanogenesis and providing a mechanism for normal pigmentation variation. In order to investigate the role that SLC45A2 polymorphisms play in human pigmentation variation, a DNA database was established which collected pigmentation phenotypic information and blood samples of more than 700 individuals. This database was used as the foundation for two association studies outlined in this thesis, the first of which involved genotyping two previously-described non-synonymous polymorphisms, p.Glu272Lys and p.Phe374Leu, in four different population groups. For both polymorphisms, allele frequencies were significantly different between population groups and the 272Lys and 374Leu alleles were strongly associated with black hair, brown eyes and olive skin colour in Caucasians. This was the first report to show that SLC45A2 polymorphisms were associated with normal human intra-population pigmentation variation. The second association study involved genotyping several SLC45A2 promoter polymorphisms to determine if they also played a role in pigmentation variation. Firstly, the transcription start site (TSS), and hence putative proximal promoter region, was identified using 5' RNA ligase mediated rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RLM-RACE). Two alternate TSSs were identified and the putative promoter region was screened for novel polymorphisms using denaturing high performance liquid chromatography (dHPLC). A novel duplication (c.–1176_–1174dupAAT) was identified along with other previously described single nucleotide polymorphisms (c.–1721C>G and c.–1169G>A). Strong linkage disequilibrium ensured that all three polymorphisms were associated with skin colour such that the –1721G, +dup and –1169A alleles were associated with olive skin in Caucasians. No linkage disequilibrium was observed between the promoter and coding region polymorphisms, suggesting independent effects. The association analyses were complemented with functional data, showing that the –1721G, +dup and –1169A alleles significantly decreased SLC45A2 transcriptional activity. Based on in silico bioinformatic analysis that showed these alleles remove a microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) binding site, and that MITF is a known regulator of SLC45A2 (Baxter and Pavan, 2002; Du and Fisher, 2002), it was postulated that SLC45A2 promoter polymorphisms could contribute to the regulation of pigmentation by altering MITF binding affinity. Further characterisation of the SLC45A2 promoter was carried out using luciferase reporter assays to determine the transcriptional activity of different regions of the promoter. Five constructs were designed of increasing length and their promoter activity evaluated. Constitutive promoter activity was observed within the first ~200 bp and promoter activity increased as the construct size increased. The functional impact of the –1721G, +dup and –1169A alleles, which removed a MITF consensus binding site, were assessed using electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSA) and expression analysis of genotyped melanoblast and melanocyte cell lines. EMSA results confirmed that the promoter polymorphisms affected DNA-protein binding. Interestingly, however, the protein/s involved were not MITF, or at least MITF was not the protein directly binding to the DNA. In an effort to more thoroughly characterise the functional consequences of SLC45A2 promoter polymorphisms, the mRNA expression levels of SLC45A2 and MITF were determined in melanocyte/melanoblast cell lines. Based on SLC45A2’s role in processing and trafficking TYRP1 from the trans-Golgi network to stage 2 melanosmes, the mRNA expression of TYRP1 was also investigated. Expression results suggested a coordinated expression of pigmentation genes. This thesis has substantially contributed to the field of pigmentation by showing that SLC45A2 polymorphisms not only show allele frequency differences between population groups, but also contribute to normal pigmentation variation within a Caucasian population. In addition, promoter polymorphisms have been shown to have functional consequences for SLC45A2 transcription and the expression of other pigmentation genes. Combined, the data presented in this work supports the notion that SLC45A2 is an important contributor to normal pigmentation variation and should be the target of further research to elucidate its role in determining pigmentation phenotypes. Understanding SLC45A2’s function may lead to the development of therapeutic interventions for oculocutaneous albinism and other disorders of pigmentation. It may also help in our understanding of skin cancer susceptibility and evolutionary adaptation to different UV environments, and contribute to the forensic application of pigmentation phenotype prediction.