The study examined the impact of maternal employment and family life cycle stage on the psychological well-being o£ middle socioeconomic status women. One hundred twenty eight mothers of children at the stages of birth to 6 years, 7 to 12 years and 13 to 17 years, completed a self-report questionnaire. To test the hypothesis of the study, a 3 X 3 (employment X family life cycle stage) analysis of covariance was conducted with age, income, time employed and psychological resources as covariates. Results indicated that middle socioeconomic status mothers employed full-time experienced significantly higher levels of role overload, occupational strain, spouse support and job commitment. A post hoc exploratory analysis using conflict level between commitment to work and parenting, yielded data which indicated that individuals with a large discrepancy between commitment to one role versus the other, experienced the greatest degree of difficulty. Results were evaluated in the light of selective characteristics of the sample. Recommendations for future research included the use of projective assessment to reduce the effect of defensive response styles. A life span approach using the concept of perceived conflict between roles was advanced, instead of the age specific developmental construct of family life cycle stage.

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is commonly reported to be more prevalent in children from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds. In this thesis I will explore in more detail the association between socioeconomic disadvantage and ADHD. This thesis comprises six studies, starting with a systematic review in order to evaluate existing published evidence, which is followed by a qualitative study that explores educational practitioners’ conceptualisation of the causes of ADHD. A series of three analyses utilising existing data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) then explore which measures of socioeconomic status (SES) are associated with a research diagnosis of ADHD and potential mediators of this association, and whether timing, duration or changes in exposure to financial difficulty impact on the SES-ADHD association. In the final study in this thesis, I explore whether SES-health associations in general are likely to be due to epigenetic differences in children exposed to low SES. Existing literature provides evidence that an association between SES and ADHD is commonly detected. The facet of SES most predictive of ADHD was mother-reported experience of difficulty affording basic necessities (financial difficulty), associated with an increased risk of a research diagnosis of ADHD of 2.23 (95%CI 1.57, 3.16). Exposure to financial difficulty between birth and age seven was associated with higher levels of ADHD symptoms across childhood of 0.78 points on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire Hyperactivity subscale (95% CI 0.54, 1.00, p < 0.001), whereas later exposure to financial difficulty was not associated with ADHD symptoms. In addition, I found tentative evidence that different patterns of SES exposure are associated with different levels of ADHD symptoms, with those consistently low SES having symptom scores 0.41 points higher than those in difficulty (95% CI 3.46, 3.57, p<0.001). I did not find strong evidence that low SES impacts on epigenetic profiles across childhood. These findings add to emerging evidence of an association between SES and ADHD that has implications for theory and policy.

Fundamental Cause Theory suggests that socioeconomic and demographic factors are causal to various illnesses, including depression. However, no known previously existing research has used Fundamental Cause Theory to create a model of depression among college students. To do this, the present study conducted a stepwise binomial logistic regression to examine how socioeconomic status and the sociodemographic variables of Gender, Race, and Sexual Orientation, and others predict depressive symptoms in a large sample of undergraduates when controlling for stressful life events and social support (N = 2,915). Results support the hypothesis that socioeconomic disparities in depressive symptoms are the result of stress. In the final model, low Social Support was the most predictive variable of high depressive symptoms (OR = 2.882), followed by being bisexual (OR = 2.061). Being black was significantly protective against high depressive symptoms (OR = 0.613). Implications for future research and university services are discussed.

Magister Commercii - MCom / Mental disorders are estimated to be experienced by one out of three South Africans in their lifetime. (Stein, Seedat, Herman, Moomal, Heeringa, Kessler & Williams, 2009:3). Empirical studies indicate, that people, who are poor, live in impoverished neighbourhoods, have lower education levels and are subsequently more likely to have mental disorders. This study focuses on depression. Empirical studies point to depression being negatively correlated with socioeconomic determinants, but is this the case in South Africa? From a theoretical standpoint the study considers how socio-structural aspects such as poverty and educational outcomes (amongst other socioeconomic variables) can lead to the prevalence and persistence of depressive symptoms. The main question the study aimed to investigate was whether depression was negatively related to socioeconomic status, and through which pathways does socioeconomic status affect depression. This study used panel data from the National Income Dynamics Study (NIDS) to examine the socioeconomic determinants of depressive symptoms. Waves 1 (2008) and 4 (2014/2015) of the NIDS data were used to answer the research question. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the 10-item version of the Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). The scale measured depressive symptomatology. The cut off that was used was a score of 10 or higher, which indicated the occurrence of significant depressive symptoms. In order to assess which socioeconomic determinants increase the probability of experiencing significant depressive symptoms, a probit model was used to make this investigation. The results of the study indicate that, despite the recent increase in depression in 2012 and 2014/2015, the overall prevalence of depression in South Africa has declined significantly between 2008 and 2014/2015. Socioeconomic status was found to be negatively associated with depression. In particular, a low income and occupational status were associated with a significantly greater probability of being depressed. Disparities in depression outcomes followed the disparities in socioeconomic status. Hence the study found that women and Africans were particularly vulnerable to depression as they were socioeconomically disadvantaged.

Class of 2011 Abstract / OBJECTIVES: To examine the effects of pharmacist-provided direct patient care with consideration to the patients’ socioeconomic status as determined by the patients’ health insurance. METHODS: A meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the effects of pharmacist-provided direct patient care on different socioeconomic populations as determined by the patients’ health insurance by including results from several independent randomized control trials. A standardized and tested data extraction form was used to collect primary data on outcome category (therapeutic, safety, and humanistic), disease category (diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular, dyslipidemia, asthma, and other), insurance status (Medicaid, Medicare, Veterans Affairs/ Department of Defense, private and uninsured), and outcome measures. The potential for bias data were analyzed by calculating a total potential for bias score and by construction a forest plot ordered by bias score. RESULTS: Twenty-two studies were included in the meta-analysis. The insurances most often reported were Medicaid (13.6%), Medicare (18.2%), the Veterans Affairs/ Department of Defense (VA/DoD) (41%), and private insurance (27.2%). All insurance groups benefited from pharmacist intervention (p<0.01). The Medicare patients benefited the least from the pharmacist interventions [standard mean difference (SMD) = 0.21], and the benefit of intervention was significantly less than the benefit for subjects having Medicaid, Private Insurance or VA/DoD coverage (p<0.02). CONCLUSION: While patients in all insurance type benefited from pharmacist intervention, Medicare patients seemed to benefit the least; further studies are needed to verify the findings and to explore why the benefit is less than for other groups.

In an effort to improve instruction and better accommodate the needs of students, community colleges are offering courses delivered in a variety of delivery formats that require students to have some level of technology fluency to be successful in the course. This study was conducted to investigate the relationship between student socioeconomic status (SES), course delivery method, and course type on enrollment, final course grades, course completion status, and course passing status at a state college. A dataset for 20,456 students of low and not low SES enrolled in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) course types delivered using traditional, online, blended, and web enhanced course delivery formats at Miami Dade College, a large open access 4-year state college located in Miami-Dade County, Florida, was analyzed. A factorial ANOVA using course type, course delivery method, and student SES found no significant differences in final course grades when used to determine if course delivery methods were equally effective for students of low and not low SES taking STEM course types. Additionally, three chi-square goodness-of-fit tests were used to investigate for differences in enrollment, course completion and course passing status by SES, course type, and course delivery method. The findings of the chi-square tests indicated that: (a) there were significant differences in enrollment by SES and course delivery methods for the Engineering/Technology, Math, and overall course types but not for the Natural Science course type and (b) there were no significant differences in course completion status and course passing status by SES and course types overall and SES and course delivery methods overall. However, there were statistically significant but weak relationships between course passing status, SES and the math course type as well as between course passing status, SES, and online and traditional course delivery methods. The mixed findings in the study indicate that strides have been made in closing the theoretical gap in education and technology skills that may exist for students of different SES levels. MDC’s course delivery and student support models may assist other institutions address student success in courses that necessitate students having some level of technology fluency.

Drawing from Pierre Bourdieu’s socio-cultural approach, this qualitative research project aimed to: (a) understand the responses to current body norms and expectations tied to health and physical appearances amongst underprivileged young women; and; (b) understand to what extent the dominant obesity discourse is inscribed in these women’s bodily habits. Results highlight that participants were aware of the dominant obesity discourse through their perceptions, sentiments, and dispositions towards bodily norms and expectations. Despite their awareness, underprivileged living conditions generated other sets of priorities, such as motherhood, achieving economic stability, completing education, and gaining physical independence which were far greater preoccupations. Underprivileged young women’s ‘choice of the necessary’ is based on optimizing resources and prioritizing needs and responsibilities. Findings support the use of Pierre Bourdieu’s concepts which consider the effects of various aspects of underprivileged living conditions on lifestyles.

Background: In addition to the influence of an individual’s socioeconomic status, the neighbourhoods in which people live may influence health-related behaviours including smoking. This study therefore sought to determine the influence of the socioeconomic context in which South African adults lived on their smoking behaviour, and explore the potential gender differences of contextual influences. Method: This study involved a representative sample of South African adults (≥16 years) who participated in the 2010 (n=3,112) and 2011 (3,003) South African Social Attitude Survey (SASAS). The 2009 General Household Survey (n =25,548 households) was used to obtain the socioeconomic characteristics of the neighbourhoods where SASAS participants lived, including proportion of households with access to tap water, access to flush toilets and the level of employment in the area (3-item deprivation index; α=0.84). Information obtained from SASAS included participants’ tobacco use status and socio-demographic characteristics, including participants’ self-rated socioeconomic position within the society. Data analysis included a multi-level Poisson regression analysis. Results: Of the respondents who participated in the 2010/2011 survey, 19.4% (n=1302) were current smokers (30% men and 9.8% women). Smoking was more prevalent among those living in areas in the upper-third socioeconomic status (SES) than in areas in the lower-third SES (22.9% vs. 13.5%; p= 0.01). The neighbourhood socioeconomic context had a greater influence on the prevalence of smoking among women than among men. In particular, the gender gap in smoking prevalence was higher among those living in areas in the lowest-third SES (24.6% men vs. 4.6% women) than among those in areas of highest-third SEP (31.5% men vs. 15% women). Overall, smoking was less likely among those with greater than high school education than among those with less than high school education (OR=0.68; 95%CI=0.56-0.82). Conclusion: The findings suggest a greater neighbourhood socioeconomic contextual influence on women than men and highlight the need for community-level interventions targeting the least educated living in areas of highest socioeconomic position in South Africa. Interventions and public health policies to decrease tobacco smoking should be developed with some neighbourhood-specific modifications and should also be actively implemented. / Dissertation (MPH)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2015 / School of Health Systems and Public Health (SHSPH) / MPH / Unrestricted

The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between socioeconomic status and mental health-related quality of life in a micropolitan community in Iowa and to determine the effect of neighborhood social cohesion, neighborhood violence, and unfair treatment on this relationship. I hypothesized that socioeconomic status would be correlated with mental health quality of life, such that those of low or middle socioeconomic status would have greater odds of reporting poor mental health quality of life than those of high socioeconomic status. Furthermore, I hypothesized that lower perceived neighborhood social cohesion, having reported neighborhood violence in the past six months, and having reported an experience of unfair treatment in the past six months would be associated with being of low socioeconomic status. I then explored which of these factors are the best predictors of poor mental health quality of life when considered together. The study is a secondary data analysis of health information gathered from a large, random-digit dial telephone survey of residents of Ottumwa, Iowa. To address the research questions, responses from a total of 1079 surveys were analyzed. Participants were clustered into three socioeconomic status groupings based on the following factors: annual household income, highest level of education completed, current work status, whether the respondent owned or rented their home, and whether the respondent's household fell at or below 125 percent of the Federal Poverty Level. Mental health quality of life was measured using questions from the CDC's Healthy Days Measure that specifically ask about mental health. Bivariate relationships between variables were calculated utilizing chi-square tests of independence. A series of logistic regression models were then conducted to further explore these relationships. Results showed that those belonging to the low socioeconomic status group had about four times the odds of reporting poor mental health quality of life than those in the high socioeconomic status group. The relationship did not hold true for those in the middle socioeconomic status group, as they had similar odds of reporting poor mental health quality of life than those in the high socioeconomic status group. Results also showed that neighborhood violence, low neighborhood social cohesion, and experiencing unfair treatment were also independently associated with reporting poor mental health quality of life as well as being of low socioeconomic status. Results of the logistic regression model containing the social and neighborhood factors showed that neighborhood social cohesion and perceived unfair treatment were significantly associated with greater odds of reporting poor mental health quality of life. These relationships remained after including demographic co-variates in the model. Low socioeconomic status, lower neighborhood social cohesion, and reporting experience of unfair treatment significantly predicted greater odds of reporting poor mental health quality of life. These results should be interpreted with caution, as data was cross-sectional and inferences about causality cannot be made. Further research investigating the possible causal pathway underlying this relationship is needed.

This thesis examines the impacts of inclement weather days on AP exam scores in public schools, specifically low socioeconomic districts, and the assessment of their current closure procedures. By investigating the potential disruption in scores by inclement weather days, I can create a new dataset in analyzing a field that has yet to be studied through this lens, in addition to advising future policy for district superintendents and state government officials. The areas studied include Massachusetts and Georgia, representing states that are properly prepared for inclement weather closures and are under-prepared for inclement weather, respectively. I use two research methods to fully understand the quantitative and qualitative effects of inclement weather closures. The first is a quantitative analysis of district-level data on inclement weather days and AP exam scores over the past five years. To accomplish this, I contacted public-school districts in the two states involved in the case study to get raw data on school closures and combine this with already available datasets on AP exam score performance. The second is a qualitative account of inclement weather days from teachers and superintendents from districts across both states to establish their opinions regarding school closures and investigate the decision-making process in canceling school. In this qualitative assessment, I observe the roles that socioeconomic status and public transportation, among other factors, play in cancelations. This thesis seeks to challenge the argument proposed by previous research that snow days have no effect on test performance. Previously, this was measured by looking at state-wide exams. By using AP exams as a performance measure instead, a more direct impact on exam scores is expected due to the immovable testing dates and content- specific nature of the exams. Policy recommendations are given to accommodate the negative relationship between closures and test scores, given socioeconomic status.