<div>In fire-prone forests, tree taxa and burn temperature are the major controllers of the chemical and physical properties of pyrogenic organic matter (PyOM), the aromatic carbon-rich product of the incomplete combustion of plant biomass, that accumulates in soil in such settings. These controls also dictate how soil microbes can degrade plant C once it enters into soil as previous studies demonstrate that increased fire temperature results in low PyOM degradability but also impacts the decomposition of the original soil. However, we know little about how taxa and temperature of C-inputs impact the production and accumulation of cellular residues from soil microbes, which can be the dominant source of stabilized soil organic matter in many ecosystems. </div><div>This work presents the results of the analysis of soil microbial amino sugars, as proxies for soil microbial necromass, from long-term soil incubation experiments, 180 and 600 days, that were amended with jack pine (JP) and red maple (RM) wood or their PyOM produced at 300°C or 450°C. Both wood taxa amendments resulted in an increase in microbial sugar residues compared to non-amended soils but RM, the taxa with the highest proportion of soluble sugars and low tannin content, exhibited the highest percentage increase. Soils amended with PyOM exhibited lower amino sugar content as compared to their wood but no difference compared to controls (non-amended soils). There was no difference in soil amino sugars observed between the PyOM derived from the two taxa nor between the temperature of pyrolysis, possibly due to only small amounts of bioavailable C and N in the PyOM. Total amino sugar concentrations varied significantly between PyOM and fresh wood treatments, with PyOM treatments yielding 659 – 730 μg/ g soil while wood treatments yielded 757 – 930 μg/ g soil early in incubations. While fungal-derived amino sugars were dominated in all treatments, longer soil incubation time, 600 days vs 180 days, resulted in a proportionately greater decrease bacterial-derived amino sugars. Overall, at 180 days, PyOM treatments exhibited 19-27% of soil N and 4-5% of soil C quantifiable as amino sugars while wood treatments exhibited 27-28% of total soil N and 6-7% of total soil C as amino sugars. This work shows, for the first time, that on a per C or per N basis, PyOM versus fresh wood addition to soils will result in a net depletion of microbial residues. The variable response in amino sugars between treatments and incubation time highlights the importance and dynamic nature of the physicochemical characteristics of organic matter input to soil in controlling the contribution of soil microbial residues to that soil. </div><div><br></div>

Thesis (PhD (Botany and Zoology))—University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Metal pollution is a problem of increasing global concern. It could arise from industrial activities, as well as pesticide use in agriculture, among other sources. For adequate protection of the soil ecosystem from metal toxicity, the bioavailability of metals must be properly evaluated. A plethora of soil factors affect the bioavailability of metals to soil organisms. These include pH, clay and organic matter contents, salinity among others. While much is known about the influence of some of these parameters, little is known on how clay content and salinity modify the bioavailability of metals to soil organisms. This study investigated the influence of clay content and salinity on partitioning, uptake and toxicity of two essential metals (Cu and Zn) to the earthworm Eisenia fetida in separate laboratory trials. Partitioning of the metals was evaluated with 0.01 M CaCl2, DTPA (di-ethylene-triamine-penta acetic acid), and nitric acid extractions. The metal content of worms was determined by acid digestion, while growth, cocoon production, and mortality were used as endpoints showing toxicity to metals and/or salinity. To test the validity of some of the laboratory results, a field study was undertaken, using the earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa. Further, the study assessed the effect of salinity, using a battery of laboratory tests (acute, chronic and avoidance tests) with natural and/or artificial soils on four species of organisms (a collembolan Folsomia candida, a potworm Enchytraeus doerjesi and two earthworm species E. fetida and A. caliginosa), representing different feeding patterns and ecological roles in soil. Results showed that with increased clay content, there was increased availability of Cu in the substrate, and increased toxicity to E. fetida as shown by data for mortality and growth. The situation with Zn was less significant at sub-lethal concentrations but much so at lethal concentrations. DTPA and CaCl2 extracted metals revealed changes in partitioning of Cu and Zn with changes in clay content, but this trend was not always consistent. Both DTPA and CaCl2 revealed increased availability of Zn in substrates with increased salinity. Salinity had an additive to synergistic effect with Zn in toxicity to E. fetida. When combined with Cu, salinity also increased the availability of Cu as shown by CaCl2 extracted fraction, and had additive effect on toxicity of Cu to the earthworm. The field study did not succeed in in iv confirming the results of the laboratory study due to confounding role of flooding after heavy rainfall and subsequent leaching of salts and Cu. The results of the experiment on acute and chronic toxicity tests for NaCl on E. fetida showed LC50 of 5436 mg/kg NaCl and EC50 for growth and cocoon production of 4985 and 2020 mg/kg NaCl. These values showed that earthworms might be negatively affected in many soils containing fairly moderate concentrations of salts. Similarly, A. caliginosa could not survive in natural soil containing relatively low salt concentrations (EC = 1.62 dS/m) while reproduction was severely affected at lower EC value of 0.52 dS/m. F. candida and E. doerjesi could survive in the highest salinity soil (EC = 1.62 dS/m) used in this study but their reproduction was severely affected from 1.03 dS/m. Overall, it appears that of all the taxa used, earthworm species were the most sensitive to saline stress and could proof useful in determining ‘safe levels’ of salt in contaminated soils. The results of the avoidance test showed that A. caliginosa avoided both natural and artificial saline soil containing concentrations lower than those avoided by E. fetida. The conclusion is that the influence of clay content and salinity on the bioavailability of Cu and Zn depends largely on the metal in question, but generally speaking, bioavailability and toxicity of the metals were reduced with increased clay content while the opposite was true for salinity. If the species used in this study can be seen as fairly representative of a wide range of soil organisms, the conclusion is that salinisation of soil will be detrimental to most soil organisms at relatively low saline concentrations. Given the role of beneficial soil organisms in several soil processes which in turn contribute to soil fertility and sustainable use of land, it is recommended that any farming practices that may lead to an increase in salt content of agricultural soils should be discouraged. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Metaalbesoedeling is ‘n probleem wat toenemende globale kommer veroorsaak. Dit kan ontstaan as gevolg van industriële aktiwiteite sowel as van plaagmiddelgebruik in die landbou en ander bronne.Ten einde die grondekostelsel genoegsaam te beskerm, moet die biobeskikbaarheid van metale ge-evalueer word. ‘n Verskeidenheid van grondfaktore be-invloed die biobeskikbaarheid van metale vir grondorganismes Hulle sluit onder andere in pH, klei, organiese inhoud en soutgehalte. Hoewel heelwat bekend is oor die rol van sommige van hierdie parameters, is min bekend oor hoe klei en soutgehalte die biobeskikbaarheid van metale vir grondorganismes kan modifieer. Hierdie studie het die invloed van kleiinhoud and soutgehalte op die verdeling/partisie, opname en toksisiteit van twee essensiële metale (Cu en Zn) vir die erdwurm Eisenia fetida in afsonderlike laboratoriumproewe ondersoek. Kompartementele verdeling van die metale is geevalueer deur middel van ekstraksie-metodes met 0.01 M CaCl2, DTPA (di-etileentriamien- penta asysnsuur), en salpertersuur ekstraksies. Die metaalinhoud van wurms is bepaal deur suurverterings en spektrofotometriese analises te doen terwyl groei, kokonproduksie en mortaliteit van organismes gebruik is as gevoeligheidseindpunte om toksisiteit van metale en soutgehalte aan te toon. Om die geldigheid van somige van die laboratoriumresultate te toets, is ‘n veldstudie ook onderneem met die erdwurm Aporrectodea caliginosa. Die effek van soutgehalte is verder ondersoek deur ‘n battery van laboratoriumtoetse met vier spesies (‘n kollembool Folsomia candida,’n potwurm Enchytraeus doerjesi en twee erdwurmspesies E. fetida en A. caliginosa), wat verskillende voedingspatrone verteenwoordig. Die resultate het getoon dat met toenmende klei-inhoud was daar ‘n toename in die beskikbaarheid van Cu vir opname vanuit die substraat, asook ‘n toename in toksisiteit vir E. fetida soos deur die gegewens vir mortaliteit en groei uitgewys. Die situasie met Zn was minder betekenisvol by subletale konsentrasies en selfs baie minder so by letale konsentrasies. DTPA en CaCl2 ge-ekstraheerde metale het veranderinge in die partisie/verdeling van Cu en Zn uitgewys met verandering in klei-inhoud, maar die tendens was nie altyd konstant nie. Beide DTPA en CaCl2 ekstraksie het toenemende beskikbaarheid van Zn in substrate uitgewys met toenemende soutinhoud. Soutinhoud het ‘n additiewe/toegevoegde tot sinergistiese vi toksisiteitseffek saam met Zn vir E. fetida. In kombinasie met Cu het soutgehalte ook die geskatte biobeskikbaarheid van Cu verhoog soos uitgewys deur die CaCl2, geekstraheerde fraksie, en het ‘n additiewe effek gehad op die toksisitiet van Cu vir die erdwurm. Die veldstudie kon nie die resultate van die laboratoriumstudie bevestig nie weens die belemmerende rol van vloede na swaar reënneerslae en daaropvolgende uitloging van soute en Cu. Die resultate van die eksperimentele ondersoek na die akute en chroniese effekte van NaCl op E. fetida het ‘n LC50 van 5436 mg/kg NaCl en EC50 vir groei en kokonproduksie van 4985 en 2020 mg/kg NaCl opgelewer. Hierdie waardes het aangetoon dat erdwurms moontlik negatief beinvloed kan word in baie gronde wat ‘n redelike gemiddelde konsentrasie van soute bevat. Soortgelyk kon A. caliginosa nie oorleef in natuurllike grond wat relatief lae soutkonsentrasies bevat het (EC=1.62 dS/m) nie terwyl voortplanting sterk ge-affekteer is by ‘n lae EC waarde van 0.52 dS/m. F. candida en E. doerjesi kon oorleef in die grond met die hoogste soutgehalte (EC= 1.62 dS/m) maar hulle voortplanting is ernstig geknou vanaf 1.03 dS/m. In geheel blyk dit dat van allle taksa wat gebruik is, erdwurms die sensitiefste was vir die stres wat deur soutgehalte veroorsaak is. Die kennis kan nuttig wees in die bepaling van “veilige vlakke” van sout in gekontamineerde gronde. Die resultate van die vermydingstoetse het getoon dat A. caliginosa beide natuurlike en kunsmatig versoute gronde vermy het by konsentrasies wat heelwat laer was as dié wat deur E. fetida vermy is Die gevolgtrekking is dat die invloed van klei en soutgehalte op die biobeskikbaarheid van Cu en Zn grootliks afhanklik is van die metale wat betrokke is en dat biobeskikbaarheid en toksisiteit normaalweg verminder het met verhoogde klei-inhoud, met die teenoorgestelde wat waar was in die geval van soutgehalte. Indien die spesies wat in die studie gebruik is beskou kan word as redelik verteenwoordigend van ‘n wye reeks van grondorganismes, is die gevolgtrekking dat versouting van gronde nadelig sal wees vir meeste grondorganismes, selfs by relatief lae soutkonsentrasies. In die lig van die rol wat nuttige grondorganismes speel in verskeie grondprosesse wat bydraend is tot grondvrugbaarheid en volhoubare gebruik van gronde, word dit aanbeveel dat enige boerderypraktyk wat mag lei tot verhoging van die soutinhoud van landbougronde ontmoedig moet word.

A conservação da biodiversidade edáfica na Floresta Ombrófila Mista favorece os processos de decomposição e ciclagem de nutrientes, melhorando as propriedades físicoquímicas e biológicas do solo. O objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar o potencial dos atributos da macrofauna edáfica, Fungos Micorrízicos Arbusculares (FMA) e de variáveis ambientais explicativas (físico-químicas e microbiológicas) como indicadores de qualidade do solo em duas épocas contrastantes (inverno e verão) em Floresta de Araucária do Estado de São Paulo. Foram avaliadas florestas com Araucaria angustifolia nativa (NF) e reflorestada (RF) em três regiões distintas do Estado de São Paulo. Cada floresta teve três repetições verdadeiras, nas quais, foram coletadas, ao acaso, quinze amostras de solo para avaliação dos atributos físicos (densidade, macroporosidade, microporosidade, porosidade total e umidade), químicos [pH, teores de carbono orgânico (C-org), P, Ca, Mg, K, Al e H+Al] e biológicos [macrofauna, FMA, carbono da biomassa microbiana (CBM), respiração basal, quociente metabólico (qCO2) e atividade da desidrogenase (Desi)]. Nos mesmos pontos de amostragem, foram avaliadas a macrofauna edáfica, a densidade de FMA e a colonização micorrízica em raízes de araucária. Na serapilheira foi avaliada a massa seca (MSS) e foram determinados os teores de C, N e S. Os atributos físico-químicos e microbiológicos do solo e químicos da serapilheira foram submetidos à análise de variância (Two-way ANOVA). A abundância da macrofauna e de espécies de minhocas foram submetidas à Análise de Componentes Principais (ACP) e as variáveis microbiológicas, MSS, físico-químicas do solo e da serapilheira foram usadas como variáveis explicativas (VE). A abundância de espécies de FMA foi submetida à ACP e as variáveis físico-químicas do solo e da serapilheira foram usadas como VE. Adicionalmente, a abundância da macrofauna e as VE foram submetidas à Análise Canônica Discriminante (ACD) e a uma Análise de Correlação Canônica (ACC). A macrofauna apresentou maior riqueza de grupos no verão, sendo que a NF proporcionou a maior diversidade de grupos. A umidade, porosidade total, teor de S na serapilheira, pH, teor de K, CBM e respiração basal foram os atributos edáficos mais importantes para separar as áreas. O grupo Oligochaeta, principamente as espécies Ponthoscolex corethrurus e Amynthas spp., foram boas indicadoras de qualidade do solo e/ou de distúrbio na Floresta de Araucária. Encontraram-se 36 táxons de FMA, sendo os gêneros Glomus, Acaulospora e Scutellospora os mais abundantes. A espécie Ambispora appendicula apresentou a maior abundância relativa. No inverno, observou-se alta correlação da Desi e C-CO2 com pH e H+Al, enquanto que no verão, o C-org, umidade, Mg, pH e C da serapilheira se correlacionaram com a atividade da Desi e C-CO2. Os atributos H+Al, P, porosidade total, S da serapilheira e umidade do solo foram os mais importantes na separação das áreas, independente de épocas de coleta. / The conservation of edaphic biodiversity in Araucaria Forests favors the processes of decomposition and nutrient cycling, improving the physico-chemical and biological soil properties. The objective of this study was to investigate the potential of the macrofauna, mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and environmental explanatory variables (physico, chemical and microbiological) as indicators of soil quality in two different contrasting seasons (winter and summer) in Araucaria Forests. We evaluated forests with native Araucaria angustifolia (NF) and reforested areas (RF) in three different regions in the State of São Paulo. Each forest had three true replicates, in which we collected at random, fifteen soil samples for evaluation of physical attributes (density, macroporosity, microporosity, total porosity and moisture), chemical attributes [pH, organic carbon (org-C), P, Ca, Mg, K, Al and H+Al] and biological attributes [macrofauna, AMF, microbial biomass carbon (MBC), basal respiration (CO2-C), metabolic quotient (qCO2) and dehydrogenase activity (Desi)]. At the same sampling points we evaluated the edaphic macrofauna, the density of AMF and root colonization in Araucaria. We evaluated the litter dry matter (MSS) and analyzed the contents of C, N and S. The physico-chemical and microbiological soil attributes and the chemical litter attributes were submitted to analysis of variance (Two-way ANOVA). The abundance of macrofauna and of earthworm species were submitted to a Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and the microbiological variables, litter dry weight, physico-chemical attributes of soil and litter were used as explanatory variables (EV). The abundance of AMF species was submitted to the PCA and the physico-chemical variables of soil and litter were used as EV. Additionally, the abundance of macrofauna and EV were submitted to a Canonical Discriminant Analysis (CDA) and to one Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA). The macrofauna showed greater richness of groups in the summer, and the NF provided the highest diversity. Moisture, total porosity, S litter content, pH, K, MBC and basal respiration were the edaphic attributes most important to separate the areas. The group Oligochaeta, especially the species Ponthoscolex corethrurus and Amynthas spp., were good indicators of soil quality and/or disturbance in these Araucaria forests. We found 35 AMF taxons, and the genera Glomus, Acaulospora and Scutellospora were the most abundant. The species Ambispora appendicula showed the highest relative abundance. In winter, a high correlation of the microbiological attributes Desi and CO2-C with pH and H+Al was found, while in the summer, the org-C, moisture, Mg, pH and Carbon of the litter were more correlated with Desi activity and C-CO2. The attributes H+Al, P, total porosity, S of the litter and soil moisture were the most important attributes to discriminate the areas, regardless of the season.

A conservação da biodiversidade edáfica na Floresta Ombrófila Mista favorece os processos de decomposição e ciclagem de nutrientes, melhorando as propriedades físicoquímicas e biológicas do solo. O objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar o potencial dos atributos da macrofauna edáfica, Fungos Micorrízicos Arbusculares (FMA) e de variáveis ambientais explicativas (físico-químicas e microbiológicas) como indicadores de qualidade do solo em duas épocas contrastantes (inverno e verão) em Floresta de Araucária do Estado de São Paulo. Foram avaliadas florestas com Araucaria angustifolia nativa (NF) e reflorestada (RF) em três regiões distintas do Estado de São Paulo. Cada floresta teve três repetições verdadeiras, nas quais, foram coletadas, ao acaso, quinze amostras de solo para avaliação dos atributos físicos (densidade, macroporosidade, microporosidade, porosidade total e umidade), químicos [pH, teores de carbono orgânico (C-org), P, Ca, Mg, K, Al e H+Al] e biológicos [macrofauna, FMA, carbono da biomassa microbiana (CBM), respiração basal, quociente metabólico (qCO2) e atividade da desidrogenase (Desi)]. Nos mesmos pontos de amostragem, foram avaliadas a macrofauna edáfica, a densidade de FMA e a colonização micorrízica em raízes de araucária. Na serapilheira foi avaliada a massa seca (MSS) e foram determinados os teores de C, N e S. Os atributos físico-químicos e microbiológicos do solo e químicos da serapilheira foram submetidos à análise de variância (Two-way ANOVA). A abundância da macrofauna e de espécies de minhocas foram submetidas à Análise de Componentes Principais (ACP) e as variáveis microbiológicas, MSS, físico-químicas do solo e da serapilheira foram usadas como variáveis explicativas (VE). A abundância de espécies de FMA foi submetida à ACP e as variáveis físico-químicas do solo e da serapilheira foram usadas como VE. Adicionalmente, a abundância da macrofauna e as VE foram submetidas à Análise Canônica Discriminante (ACD) e a uma Análise de Correlação Canônica (ACC). A macrofauna apresentou maior riqueza de grupos no verão, sendo que a NF proporcionou a maior diversidade de grupos. A umidade, porosidade total, teor de S na serapilheira, pH, teor de K, CBM e respiração basal foram os atributos edáficos mais importantes para separar as áreas. O grupo Oligochaeta, principamente as espécies Ponthoscolex corethrurus e Amynthas spp., foram boas indicadoras de qualidade do solo e/ou de distúrbio na Floresta de Araucária. Encontraram-se 36 táxons de FMA, sendo os gêneros Glomus, Acaulospora e Scutellospora os mais abundantes. A espécie Ambispora appendicula apresentou a maior abundância relativa. No inverno, observou-se alta correlação da Desi e C-CO2 com pH e H+Al, enquanto que no verão, o C-org, umidade, Mg, pH e C da serapilheira se correlacionaram com a atividade da Desi e C-CO2. Os atributos H+Al, P, porosidade total, S da serapilheira e umidade do solo foram os mais importantes na separação das áreas, independente de épocas de coleta. / The conservation of edaphic biodiversity in Araucaria Forests favors the processes of decomposition and nutrient cycling, improving the physico-chemical and biological soil properties. The objective of this study was to investigate the potential of the macrofauna, mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and environmental explanatory variables (physico, chemical and microbiological) as indicators of soil quality in two different contrasting seasons (winter and summer) in Araucaria Forests. We evaluated forests with native Araucaria angustifolia (NF) and reforested areas (RF) in three different regions in the State of São Paulo. Each forest had three true replicates, in which we collected at random, fifteen soil samples for evaluation of physical attributes (density, macroporosity, microporosity, total porosity and moisture), chemical attributes [pH, organic carbon (org-C), P, Ca, Mg, K, Al and H+Al] and biological attributes [macrofauna, AMF, microbial biomass carbon (MBC), basal respiration (CO2-C), metabolic quotient (qCO2) and dehydrogenase activity (Desi)]. At the same sampling points we evaluated the edaphic macrofauna, the density of AMF and root colonization in Araucaria. We evaluated the litter dry matter (MSS) and analyzed the contents of C, N and S. The physico-chemical and microbiological soil attributes and the chemical litter attributes were submitted to analysis of variance (Two-way ANOVA). The abundance of macrofauna and of earthworm species were submitted to a Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and the microbiological variables, litter dry weight, physico-chemical attributes of soil and litter were used as explanatory variables (EV). The abundance of AMF species was submitted to the PCA and the physico-chemical variables of soil and litter were used as EV. Additionally, the abundance of macrofauna and EV were submitted to a Canonical Discriminant Analysis (CDA) and to one Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA). The macrofauna showed greater richness of groups in the summer, and the NF provided the highest diversity. Moisture, total porosity, S litter content, pH, K, MBC and basal respiration were the edaphic attributes most important to separate the areas. The group Oligochaeta, especially the species Ponthoscolex corethrurus and Amynthas spp., were good indicators of soil quality and/or disturbance in these Araucaria forests. We found 35 AMF taxons, and the genera Glomus, Acaulospora and Scutellospora were the most abundant. The species Ambispora appendicula showed the highest relative abundance. In winter, a high correlation of the microbiological attributes Desi and CO2-C with pH and H+Al was found, while in the summer, the org-C, moisture, Mg, pH and Carbon of the litter were more correlated with Desi activity and C-CO2. The attributes H+Al, P, total porosity, S of the litter and soil moisture were the most important attributes to discriminate the areas, regardless of the season.

To date, there has been little research into the role of microbial community structure in the functioning of the soil ecosystem and on the links between microbial biomass size, microbial activity and key soil processes that drive nutrient availability. The maintenance of structural and functional diversity of the soil microbial community is essential to ensure the sustainability of agricultural production systems. Soils of the same type with similar fertility that had been under long-term organic and conventional crop management in Canterbury, New Zealand, were selected to investigate relationships between microbial community composition, function and potential environmental impacts. The effects of different fertilisation strategies on soil biology and nitrogen (N) dynamics were investigated under field (farm site comparison), semi-controlled (lysimeter study) and controlled (incubation experiments) conditions by determining soil microbial biomass carbon (C) and N, enzyme activities (dehydrogenase, arginine deaminase, fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis), microbial community structure (denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis following PCR amplification of 16S and 18S rDNA fragments using selected primer sets) and N dynamics (mineralisation and leaching). The farm site comparison revealed distinct differences between the soils in microbial community structure, microbial biomass C (conventional > organic) and arginine deaminase activity (organic > conventional). In the lysimeter study, the soils were subjected to the same crop rotation (barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), maize (Zea mays L.), rape (Brassica napus L. ssp. oleifera (Moench)) plus a lupin green manure (Lupinus angustifolius L.) and two fertiliser regimes (following common organic and conventional practice). Soil biological properties, microbial community structure and mineral N leaching losses were determined over 2½ years. Differences in mineral leaching losses were not significant between treatments (total organic management: 24.2 kg N per ha; conventional management: 28.6 kg N per ha). Crop rotation and plant type had a larger influence on the microbial biomass, activity and community structure than fertilisation. Initial differences between soils decreased over time for most biological soil properties, while they persisted for the enzyme activities (e.g. dehydrogenase activity: 4.0 and 2.9 µg per g and h for organic and conventional management history, respectively). A lack of consistent positive links between enzyme activities and microbial biomass size indicated that similarly sized and structured microbial communities can express varying rates of activity. In two successive incubation experiments, the soils were amended with different rates of a lupin green manure (4 or 8t dry matter per ha), and different forms of N at 100 kg per ha (urea and lupin) and incubated for 3 months. Samples were taken periodically, and in addition to soil biological properties and community structure, gross N mineralisation was determined. The form of N had a strong effect on microbial soil properties. Organic amendment resulted in a 2 to 5-fold increase in microbial biomass and enzyme activities, while microbial community structure was influenced by the addition or lack of C or N substrate. Correlation analyses suggested treatment-related differences in nutrient availability, microbial structural diversity (species richness or evenness) and physiological properties of the microbial community. The findings of this thesis showed that using green manures and crop rotations improved soil biology in both production systems, that no relationships existed between microbial structure, enzyme activities and N mineralisation, and that enzyme activities and microbial community structure are more closely associated with inherent soil and environmental factors, which makes them less useful as early indicators of changes in soil quality.

This thesis presents the findings of an investigation of the spatial and temporal distribution of soil macrofauna at multiple scales within smallholder agriforestry fields in a remote, mountainous area of western Honduras. Since 1990, smallholder farmers in the study area have switched from traditional slash-and-burn agriculture to a form of slash-and-mulch agriforestry based on cultivating maize, beans and sorghum amongst dispersed trees. The principal objective was to examine the influence of the slash-and-mulch agricultural system on soil macrofauna abundance, biomass and community composition, and relate soil macrofauna distribution patterns to environmental variables. The initial stage of the research comprised transect-based sampling of soil macrofauna and biophysical variables in four common land uses of the study area. All four land uses (secondary forest, young milpa (agriforestry), mature milpa, and pasture) supported abundant, diverse and heterogeneous soil macrofauna communities, with few notable differences in soil macrofauna distribution among land uses. The most abundant soil macrofauna taxa were termites, ants, earthworms and beetles. Of the 'explanatory' environmental variables that were measured (including land use and selected soil properties, vegetation characteristics and topographic variables), those that had the strongest relationships with soil macrofauna abundance were land use, tree density and soil organic matter content. The second stage of the research was spatially-orientated and used stratified sampling based on within-field differences in farmer-defined soil type, as well as grid-based sampling of soil macrofauna surface activity. There was substantial within-field variation in soil type and topography, which was related to distribution patterns of at least one agriculturally-important soil macrofauna taxon. Earthworm activity was higher in areas of fertile soil and lower slope positions. At a finer scale, there was a positive spatial correlation between tree distribution and earthworm casting activity. The final phase situated the biophysical research in the local socio-economic context through participant observation and interviews with farmers. The results of the three phases of the study were incorporated into an original conceptual model of the relationships among soil macrofauna and environmental variables in the study area across multiple spatial scales and along a chronosequence of land use changes. Specific pointers are provided for further research on the role of soil fauna in influencing soil structure, nutrient cycling and pest species abundance, and for further investigating local knowledge and the socio-economic and cultural drivers of land use change.

Melanie Jones and Dan Durall aren't looking to the treetops for clues about the "wood wide web." They're looking to the soil at fungi that are crucial to renewing our forests.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The study of soil quality biological indicators in areas classified as forest production units is important to understand the ecological processes that occur in these systems. Monitoring the soil fauna in modified environments, when management practices involve chemical products in the environment, is an instrument that allows to evaluate not only the soil quality but also the proper functioning in a production system, since the soil fauna acts in decomposition and nutrient cycling, as well as in soil physical, chemical and biological properties. The objective of this study was to evaluate the herbicide application in a black wattle area (Acacia mearnsii De Wild.). Thus, the study was divided in three chapters. The first chapter aimed to evaluate the meso and macrophauna under different kinds and intensities of herbicides on the ground using the principal component analysis (PCA). The study was developed at Fundação Estadual de Pesquisa Agropecuária (Fepagro-Unidade Florestas) in Santa Maria/RS. The treatments were allocated as Randomized Blocks Design, with four repetitions per treatment, totalizing 64 experimental units, where two sampling plots were installed per unit using the meso and macrophauna capture PROVID method. The used herbicides were Glyphosate (4.0 l ha-1), Imazapyr (3.0 l ha-1), Oxyfluorfen (4.0 l ha-1) and Pendimethalin (3.0 l ha-1) besides hand cleaning and control without herbicide. The collects were done in the four seasons of the year (winter, spring, summer and autumn). From the calculated faunistic indexes, the taxonomic group average richness varied from 5.2 in the winter to 9.3 in the summer. The Shannon (H) diversity index was similar among all kinds and intensities of applied herbicides. This index (H) was different only between the seasons, varying from 0.58 in the spring to 1.21 in the summer. The PCA between the response and predictor variables clearly separated the component formation (taxonomic groups), significantly influenced by the kind of herbicides and application intensity. However, in PCA with additional predictor variable for the four most representative taxonomic groups (Araneae, Orthoptera, Collembola e Hymenoptera), it was observed that organism density in the group constituted by Collembola is strongly associated with the precipitation in the spring, whereas ants, Orthoptera, and spiders have their density better explained by the variable temperature. Different herbicides, as well as the intensity of the application on the ground caused no negative effects upon the biological parameters evaluated in the study, being the diversity and the density of meso and macrophauna conditioned only to the seasonal variations along the year. The study approached in the second chapter aimed to evaluate the influence of different kinds and intensities of herbicide application upon the soil physical properties, like density, macro, micro and total porosity, and aggregates average diameter (AAG). The experimental plot was the same described in chapter one. Two collections were done (before planting and after all herbicides application). Two soil samplings were collected in planting and interplanting seedling rows. The obtained results in the second collection showed that there is no significant difference between the evaluated parameters. For soil density, the highest values were found in treatments without herbicide (1.38 Mg m-3 in hand cleaning and 1.32 Mg m-3 in control). For macro, micro and total porosity the values were similar among them, for all kinds of tested herbicides, as well as for AAG. There was no herbicide direct influence upon the soil physical properties, since the weed competition was partially controlled, mainly in inter row seedlings planting, that might have contributed to maintain the soil physical structure in this area. In planting row, there was a fast soil particle reaccommodation because of the seedling roots. The third chapter aimed to evaluate the influence of herbicide application upon the symbiotic association between Rhizobium and the root systems from black-wattle seedlings, cultivated in plastic vessels under controlled environmental conditions in greenhouse. The study was established in Randomized Blocks Design, with four repetitions and ten plants per treatment, which were constituted by the same herbicides and doses mentioned in chapter one, besides a treatment without herbicide (control). The results in this study showed significant differences between the treatments and the variable dried biomass from rhizobic nodules in the black-wattle seedlings root system. All the herbicides used in vessels substrates induced the nodules formation, highlighting the herbicide Oxifluorfen (0.532 g plant-1), that showed a nodules biomass gain of 128.3% related to the control (0.233 g plant-1). Except for Glyphosate, the correlations between nodules biomass and the variables height, above ground biomass, and root biomass were all positive and significant. This way, the use of herbicide in the evaluated microenvironment caused no negative influence upon the physical and biological components (field), as well as on the microbiological component evaluated (greenhouse). / O estudo de indicadores biológicos da qualidade do solo em áreas consideradas como unidades de produção florestal é importante para o entendimento dos processos ecológicos que ocorrem nesses sistemas. Monitorar a fauna do solo em ambientes modificados pelo homem, sobretudo quando as práticas de manejo envolvem produtos químicos no ambiente, é um instrumento que permite avaliar não só a qualidade do solo, como também o próprio funcionamento de um sistema de produção, já que a fauna do solo atua na decomposição e ciclagem de nutrientes e, também, nos processos e propriedades físicas, químicas e biológicas do solo. O objetivo geral deste estudo foi avaliar os efeitos da aplicação de herbicidas em uma área de plantio de acácia-negra (Acacia mearnsii De Wild.). Para tal, o trabalho foi dividido em três capítulos. No primeiro capítulo, o objetivo foi avaliar o comportamento da meso e macrofauna epiedáfica sob a influência de diferentes tipos e intensidades de aplicação de herbicidas sobre o solo, por meio da análise de componentes principais (ACP). O estudo foi desenvolvido na Fundação Estadual de Pesquisa Agropecuária (Fepagro-Unidade Florestas), no município de Santa Maria/RS. Os tratamentos foram dispostos no delineamento blocos ao acaso, com quatro repetições por tratamento, totalizando 64 unidades experimentais, nas quais foram instalados dois pontos de coleta por unidade través do método PROVID de captura da meso e macrofauna epiedáfica. Os herbicidas utilizados foram Glyphosate (4,0 l ha-1), Imazapyr (3,0 l ha-1), Oxyfluorfen (4,0 l ha-1) e Pendimethalin (3,0 l ha-1), além de roçada manual e testemunha sem herbicida. As coletas foram relaizadas nas quatro estações do ano (inverno, primavera, verão e outono). Dos índices faunísticos calculados, a riqueza média de grupos taxonômicos variou entre 5,2 no inverno e 9,3 no verão. O índice de diversidade de Shannon (H) foi semelhante entre todos os tipos e intensidades de aplicação dos herbicidas testados. Este índice (H) diferenciou-se somente entre as estações do ano, variando entre 0,58 (primavera) e 1,21 (verão). A ACP entre as variáveis resposta e as variáveis explicativas não separou claramente a formação de componentes (grupos taxonômicos) influenciados significativamente pelo tipo e intensidade de aplicação dos herbicidas. Contudo, na ACP com variáveis suplementares explicativas para os quatro grupos taxonômicos mais representativos (Araneae, Orthoptera, Collembola e Hymenoptera), observou-se que a densidade de organismos no grupo constituído por colêmbolos é fortemente associada com à precipitação e na época da primavera, enquanto que formigas, ortópteros e aranhas têm sua densidade melhor explicada pela variável temperatura. Os diferentes herbicidas, bem como a intensidade de aplicação destes sobre o solo não exerceram efeitos negativos sobre os parâmetros biológicos avaliados no estudo, estando a diversidade e a densidade da meso e macrofauna epiedáfica condicionada apenas às variações estacionais ao longo do ano. O estudo abordado no segundo capítulo teve por objetivo avaliar, também, a influência de diferentes tipos e intensidades de aplicação de herbicidas sobre atributos físicos do solo, como densidade; macro, micro e porosidade total do solo; e diâmetro médio de agregados do solo (DMG). A base experimental de campo neste estudo foi a mesma do estudo desenvolvido no capítulo um. Foram realizadas duas coletas (antes do plantio das mudas e após todas as aplicações dos herbicidas). Duas amostras de solo foram coletadas na linha e duas na entrelinha de plantio das mudas. Os resultados obtidos na segunda coleta mostraram não haver diferença significativa entre os parâmetros avaliados. Para densidade do solo, os maiores valores foram constatados nos tratamentos sem aplicação de herbicidas (1,38 Mg m-3 na condição de roçada manual e 1,32 Mg m-3 na testemunha). Para macro, micro e porosidade total do solo os valores foram semelhantes entre si, para todos os tipos de herbicidas testados, assim como para o DMG dos agregados do solo. Não houve influência direta dos herbicidas sobre os atributos físicos do solo, uma vez que a matocompetição existente na área de estudo foi parcialmente controlada, principalmente na entrelinha de plantio das mudas, o que pode ter contribuído para a manutenção da estrutura física do solo neste local. Na linha de plantio, houve uma rápida reacomodação das partículas do solo por ação das raízes das mudas. O terceiro capítulo aborda o estudo que teve por objetivo avaliar a influência da aplicação de herbicidas sobre a associação simbiótica entre bactérias do gênero Rhizobium e o sistema radicular de mudas de acácia-negra, cultivadas em vasos plásticos, sob condições ambientais controladas em casa de vegetação. O estudo foi estabelecido no delineamento blocos ao acaso, com quatro repetições e dez plantas por tratamento, que estiveram constituídos pelos mesmos herbicidas e dosagens mencionadas no capítulo um, além de um tratamento com ausência de herbicida (testemunha). Os resultados neste estudo mostraram diferenças significativas entre os tratamentos para a variável biomassa seca de nódulos rizóbicos no sistema radicular de mudas de acácia-negra. Todos os herbicidas aplicados ao substrato dos vasos induziram à formação de nódulos rizóbicos, com destaque para o herbicida Oxyfluorfen (0,532 g planta-1), que apresentou um ganho em biomassa de nódulos de 128,3% com relação à testemunha (0,233 g planta -1). Exceto para Glyphosate, as correlações entre a biomassa de nódulos e as variáveis: altura, biomassa da parte aérea e biomassa radicular, foram todas positivas e significativas. Desse modo, a aplicação de herbicidas no microambiente avaliado neste estudo não exerceu influência negativa sobre os componentes físicos e biológicos (campo), assim como sobre o componente microbiológico avaliado (casa de vegetação).

A agrofloresta visa diminuir os efeitos ocasionados pela interferência humana no ambiente auxiliando a conservação da biodiversidade. Neste trabalho o objetivo foi verificar os indicadores químicos, físicos e biológicos do solo de uma agrofloresta em desenvolvimento inicial. O estudo foi realizado na unidade didática/demonstrativa de agrofloresta, localizada na Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná (UTFPR), Câmpus Dois Vizinhos. Foram coletadas amostras de solo e instaladas armadilhas para amostragem da fauna epiedáfica em seis áreas (tratamentos), sendo: quatro quadrantes da agrofloresta, uma área de mata secundária e uma área em sistema de integração lavoura-pecuária. As coletas foram realizadas em 2013 e em 2015, ambas no mês de novembro, em seis pontos de coleta (pseudoreptições), estratificadas em três profundidades: 0-5, 5-10 e 10-20 cm. As análises químicas de solo realizadas foram de teor de macronutrientes, alumínio e matéria orgânica e calculados índices relacionados. As análises físicas realizadas foram de densidade, macroporosidade e microporosidade. Também foi realizada avaliação da resistência do solo à penetração com uso de penetrômetro. A fauna epiedáfica foi coletada com armadilhas Pitfall-traps. Para avaliação da atividade microbiana do solo foi determinada a mineralização do C-CO2 na camada de 0-5 cm. Os dados foram submetidos à Análise de Variância, seguida de comparação de médias dos tratamentos pelo teste de Scott-Knott. Para verificar se existia diferenças entre os anos de coleta (2013 e 2015) foi aplicado o teste pareado de Wilcoxon ou o teste t pareado. Os indicadores de qualidade física do solo da agrofloresta estão em níveis intermediários, semelhantes em sua maioria ao sistema de integração lavoura pecuária, mas ainda abaixo dos indicadores de uma mata nativa secundária. Foi possível verificar que comparando as avaliações de 2013 com as de 2015, não houve diferença significativa para grande parte das variáveis analisadas. A avaliação da melhoria do solo de uma agrofloresta com pouco tempo de implantação, pode ser realizada utilizando os atributos físicos e biológicos do solo. / Agroforestry aims to reduce the effects caused by human interference in the environment, helping to conserve biodiversity. In this work the objective was to verify the chemical, physical and biological indicators of the soil of an agroforest in initial development. The study was carried out in the didactic / demonstration unit of agroforestry, located at the Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná (UTFPR), Câmpus Dois Vizinhos. Soil samples were collected and traps were installed to sample the epiedaphic fauna in six areas (treatments): four agroforestry quadrants, the secondary forest area and an area under crop-livestock integration system. The collections were carried out in 2013 and 2015, both in November, at six collection points (pseudoreptions), stratified into three depths: 0-5, 5-10 and 10-20 cm. The soil chemical analyzes were of macronutrients, aluminum and organic matter, and related indexes were calculated. The physical analyzes were of density, macroporosity and microporosity. It was also evaluated soil penetration resistance using penetrometer. Epidaphic fauna was collected with Pitfall-traps traps. To evaluate the microbial activity of the soil, the C-CO2 mineralization was determined in the 0-5 cm layer. The data were submitted to Analysis of Variance, followed by comparison of means of treatments by the Scott-Knott test. To verify if there were differences between the collection years (2013 and 2015) the Wilcoxon paired test or paired t-test was applied. The indicators of soil physical quality of agroforestry are at intermediate levels, similar to the integration system for livestock farming, but still below the indicators of a secondary native forest. It was possible to verify that comparing the evaluations of 2013 with those of 2015, there was no significant difference for most of the analyzed variables. The evaluation of the improvement of the soil of an agroforest with little time of implantation, can be realized using the physical and biological attributes of the soil.

A agrofloresta visa diminuir os efeitos ocasionados pela interferência humana no ambiente auxiliando a conservação da biodiversidade. Neste trabalho o objetivo foi verificar os indicadores químicos, físicos e biológicos do solo de uma agrofloresta em desenvolvimento inicial. O estudo foi realizado na unidade didática/demonstrativa de agrofloresta, localizada na Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná (UTFPR), Câmpus Dois Vizinhos. Foram coletadas amostras de solo e instaladas armadilhas para amostragem da fauna epiedáfica em seis áreas (tratamentos), sendo: quatro quadrantes da agrofloresta, uma área de mata secundária e uma área em sistema de integração lavoura-pecuária. As coletas foram realizadas em 2013 e em 2015, ambas no mês de novembro, em seis pontos de coleta (pseudoreptições), estratificadas em três profundidades: 0-5, 5-10 e 10-20 cm. As análises químicas de solo realizadas foram de teor de macronutrientes, alumínio e matéria orgânica e calculados índices relacionados. As análises físicas realizadas foram de densidade, macroporosidade e microporosidade. Também foi realizada avaliação da resistência do solo à penetração com uso de penetrômetro. A fauna epiedáfica foi coletada com armadilhas Pitfall-traps. Para avaliação da atividade microbiana do solo foi determinada a mineralização do C-CO2 na camada de 0-5 cm. Os dados foram submetidos à Análise de Variância, seguida de comparação de médias dos tratamentos pelo teste de Scott-Knott. Para verificar se existia diferenças entre os anos de coleta (2013 e 2015) foi aplicado o teste pareado de Wilcoxon ou o teste t pareado. Os indicadores de qualidade física do solo da agrofloresta estão em níveis intermediários, semelhantes em sua maioria ao sistema de integração lavoura pecuária, mas ainda abaixo dos indicadores de uma mata nativa secundária. Foi possível verificar que comparando as avaliações de 2013 com as de 2015, não houve diferença significativa para grande parte das variáveis analisadas. A avaliação da melhoria do solo de uma agrofloresta com pouco tempo de implantação, pode ser realizada utilizando os atributos físicos e biológicos do solo. / Agroforestry aims to reduce the effects caused by human interference in the environment, helping to conserve biodiversity. In this work the objective was to verify the chemical, physical and biological indicators of the soil of an agroforest in initial development. The study was carried out in the didactic / demonstration unit of agroforestry, located at the Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná (UTFPR), Câmpus Dois Vizinhos. Soil samples were collected and traps were installed to sample the epiedaphic fauna in six areas (treatments): four agroforestry quadrants, the secondary forest area and an area under crop-livestock integration system. The collections were carried out in 2013 and 2015, both in November, at six collection points (pseudoreptions), stratified into three depths: 0-5, 5-10 and 10-20 cm. The soil chemical analyzes were of macronutrients, aluminum and organic matter, and related indexes were calculated. The physical analyzes were of density, macroporosity and microporosity. It was also evaluated soil penetration resistance using penetrometer. Epidaphic fauna was collected with Pitfall-traps traps. To evaluate the microbial activity of the soil, the C-CO2 mineralization was determined in the 0-5 cm layer. The data were submitted to Analysis of Variance, followed by comparison of means of treatments by the Scott-Knott test. To verify if there were differences between the collection years (2013 and 2015) the Wilcoxon paired test or paired t-test was applied. The indicators of soil physical quality of agroforestry are at intermediate levels, similar to the integration system for livestock farming, but still below the indicators of a secondary native forest. It was possible to verify that comparing the evaluations of 2013 with those of 2015, there was no significant difference for most of the analyzed variables. The evaluation of the improvement of the soil of an agroforest with little time of implantation, can be realized using the physical and biological attributes of the soil.