The objectives of this research were to 1) measure the extent to which water vapor movement results in water accumulation in freezing base materials; 2) evaluate the effect of soil stabilization on water vapor movement in freezing base materials; 3) determine if the corresponding changes in water content are sufficient to cause frost heave during winter; 4) determine if the corresponding changes in water content are sufficient to cause reductions in stiffness during spring; 5) evaluate relationships between selected material properties, freezing conditions, and the occurrence and impact of water vapor movement; and 6) numerically simulate heat and water movement in selected pavement design scenarios. The research involved extensive laboratory and field testing, statistical analyses, and numerical modeling. The results of the laboratory testing, which included gradations, Atterberg limits, soil classifications, specific gravity and absorption values, electrical conductivity values, moisture-density relationships, soil-water characteristic curves, moisture-stiffness curves, hydraulic conductivity values, and frost susceptibility assessments, were used to characterize each material and enable subsequent statistical analyses. Testing of both treated and untreated materials enabled investigation of a wide variety of material properties. The results of the field testing, which included temperature, moisture content, water potential, elevation, and stiffness data over time, provided the basis for comparing pavement sections with and without capillary barriers and established the framework for numerical modeling. In a pavement section with a capillary barrier underlying the base layer, water vapor movement from the subgrade through the capillary barrier may be expected to increase the water content of the base layer by 1 to 3 percent during a typical winter season in northern Utah for base materials similar to those studied in this research. During winter, cold temperatures create an ideal environment for water vapor to travel upward from the warm subgrade soil below the frost line, through the capillary barrier, and into the base material. Soil stabilization can lead to increased or decreased amounts of water vapor movement in freezing base materials depending on the properties of the stabilized soil, which may be affected by gradation, mineralogy, and stabilizer type and concentration. Accumulation of water from long-term water vapor movement into frost-susceptible base materials underlain by a capillary barrier can lead to frost heave of the base layer as it approaches saturation, as water available in the layer can be redistributed upwards to create ice lenses upon freezing. However, the incremental increase in total water content that may occur exclusively from water vapor movement during a single winter season in northern Utah would not be expected to cause measurable increases in thaw weakening of the base layer during spring. Because water in a base layer overlying a capillary barrier cannot drain until nearly reaching positive pore pressures, the base layer will remain indefinitely saturated or nearly saturated as demonstrated in this research. For materials similar to those studied in this research, potentially important material properties related to the occurrence of water vapor movement during freezing include dry density, percent of material finer than the No. 200 sieve, percent of material finer than 0.02 mm, apparent specific gravity, absorption, initial water content, porosity, degree of saturation, hydraulic conductivity, and electrical conductivity. The rate at which water vapor movement occurs is also dependent on the thermal gradient within the given material, where higher thermal gradients are associated with higher amounts of water vapor movement. The numerical modeling supported the field observations that the capillary barrier effectively trapped moisture in the overlying base material, causing it to remain saturated or nearly saturated throughout the monitoring period. Only non-frost-susceptible aggregate base materials should be specified for use in cold climates in conjunction with capillary barriers, and the base material in this case should be assumed to remain in a saturated or nearly saturated condition during the entire service life of the pavement. Further study is recommended on water vapor movement in freezing aggregate base materials.

Nas últimas décadas, teorias têm sido formuladas para interpretar o comportamento de solos não saturados e estas têm se mostrado coerentes com resultados experimentais. Paralelamente, várias técnicas de campo e de laboratório têm sido desenvolvidas. No entanto, a determinação experimental dos parâmetros dos solos não saturados é cara, morosa, exige equipamentos especiais e técnicos experientes. Como resultado, essas teorias têm aplicação limitada a pesquisas acadêmicas e são pouco utilizados na prática da engenharia. Para superar este problema, vários pesquisadores propuseram equações para representar matematicamente o comportamento de solos não saturados. Estas proposições são baseadas em índices físicos, caracterização do solo, em ensaios convencionais ou simplesmente em ajustes de curvas. A relação entre a umidade e a sucção matricial, convencionalmente denominada curva característica de sucção do solo (SWCC) é também uma ferramenta útil na previsão do comportamento de engenharia de solos não saturados. Existem muitas equações para representar matematicamente a SWCC. Algumas são baseadas no pressuposto de que sua forma está diretamente relacionada com a distribuição dos poros e, portanto, com a granulometria. Nestas proposições, os parâmetros são calibrados pelo ajuste da curva de dados experimentais. Outros métodos supõem que a curva pode ser estimada diretamente a partir de propriedades físicas dos solos. Estas propostas são simples e conveniente para a utilização prática, mas são substancialmente incorretas, uma vez que ignoram a influência do teor de umidade, nível de tensões, estrutura do solo e mineralogia. Como resultado, a maioria tem sucesso limitado, dependendo do tipo de solo. Algumas tentativas têm sido feitas para prever a variação da resistência ao cisalhamento com relação a sucção matricial. Estes procedimentos usam, como uma ferramenta, direta ou indiretamente, a SWCC em conjunto com os parâmetros efetivos de resistência c e . Este trabalho discute a aplicabilidade de três equações para previsão da SWCC (Gardner, 1958; van Genuchten, 1980; Fredlund; Xing, 1994) para vinte e quatro amostras de solos residuais brasileiros. A adequação do uso da curva característica normalizada, proposta por Camapum de Carvalho e Leroueil (2004), também foi investigada. Os parâmetros dos modelos foram determinados por ajuste de curva, utilizando técnicas de problema inverso; dois métodos foram usados: algoritmo genético (AG) e Levenberq-Marquardt. Vários parâmetros que influênciam o comportamento da SWCC são discutidos. A relação entre a sucção matricial e resistência ao cisalhamento foi avaliada através de ajuste de curva utilizando as equações propostas por Öberg (1995); Sällfors (1997), Vanapalli et al., (1996), Vilar (2007); Futai (2002); oito resultados experimentais foram analisados. Os vários parâmetros que influênciam a forma da SWCC e a parcela não saturadas da resistência ao cisalhamento são discutidos. / In the last decades, theories have been formulated to interpret the behavior of unsaturated soils and found to be consistent with the experimental response. Besides, several techniques for field and laboratory testing have been developed, as well. However, the experimental determination of unsaturated soil parameters is costly, time-consuming, requires particular test equipments and experienced technicians. As a result, these theories application are limited to academic researches and are barely used in engineering practice. To overcome this issue, several researchers proposed equations to mathematically represent the experimental behavior unsaturated soils. These propositions are based on physical indexes, soil characterization, and current laboratory tests or simply curve fitting. The relationship of soil-water content and matric suction, conventionally referred to as the soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) is also useful tool in the prediction of the engineering behavior of unsaturated soils. There are many equations to mathematically represent SWCC. Some are based on the assumption that its shape is directly related to the pore distribution, and, therefore, the grain size distribution. In these propositions the parameters are calibrated by curve adjustment of the experimental data. Others assume that the curve can be directly estimated from physical properties of soils. These proposals are simple and convenient for practical use, but are substantially incorrect since they disregard the influence of moisture content, stress level, soil structure and mineralogy. As a result, most of them have limited success depending on soil types. Some attempts have also been made to predict the variation of the shear strength with respect to matric suction. These procedures use SWCC as a tool either directly or indirectly along with the saturated strength parameters c and . This work discusses the applicability of three SWCC equations (Gardner, 1958; van Genuchten, 1980; and Fredlund and Xing, 1994) for twenty four residual soils from Brazil. The suitability of the normalized soil-water characteristic curve, proposed by Camapum de Carvalho and Leroueil (2004), was also investigated. Models parameters were determined by curve fitting, using inverse problem techniques; two optimization methods were used: Genetic Algorithm (GA) and Levenberq-Marquardt method. Several parameters that influence the SWCC behavior are discussed, as well. The relationship between matric suction and shear strength was evaluated by curve fitting using the equations proposed by Öberg and Sällfors (1995, 1997), Vanapalli et al., (1996), Vilar (2007) and Futai (2002); eight experimental results were analyzed. Several parameters that influence the SWCC behavior and the unsaturated shear strength are discussed, as well.

Nas últimas décadas, teorias têm sido formuladas para interpretar o comportamento de solos não saturados e estas têm se mostrado coerentes com resultados experimentais. Paralelamente, várias técnicas de campo e de laboratório têm sido desenvolvidas. No entanto, a determinação experimental dos parâmetros dos solos não saturados é cara, morosa, exige equipamentos especiais e técnicos experientes. Como resultado, essas teorias têm aplicação limitada a pesquisas acadêmicas e são pouco utilizados na prática da engenharia. Para superar este problema, vários pesquisadores propuseram equações para representar matematicamente o comportamento de solos não saturados. Estas proposições são baseadas em índices físicos, caracterização do solo, em ensaios convencionais ou simplesmente em ajustes de curvas. A relação entre a umidade e a sucção matricial, convencionalmente denominada curva característica de sucção do solo (SWCC) é também uma ferramenta útil na previsão do comportamento de engenharia de solos não saturados. Existem muitas equações para representar matematicamente a SWCC. Algumas são baseadas no pressuposto de que sua forma está diretamente relacionada com a distribuição dos poros e, portanto, com a granulometria. Nestas proposições, os parâmetros são calibrados pelo ajuste da curva de dados experimentais. Outros métodos supõem que a curva pode ser estimada diretamente a partir de propriedades físicas dos solos. Estas propostas são simples e conveniente para a utilização prática, mas são substancialmente incorretas, uma vez que ignoram a influência do teor de umidade, nível de tensões, estrutura do solo e mineralogia. Como resultado, a maioria tem sucesso limitado, dependendo do tipo de solo. Algumas tentativas têm sido feitas para prever a variação da resistência ao cisalhamento com relação a sucção matricial. Estes procedimentos usam, como uma ferramenta, direta ou indiretamente, a SWCC em conjunto com os parâmetros efetivos de resistência c e . Este trabalho discute a aplicabilidade de três equações para previsão da SWCC (Gardner, 1958; van Genuchten, 1980; Fredlund; Xing, 1994) para vinte e quatro amostras de solos residuais brasileiros. A adequação do uso da curva característica normalizada, proposta por Camapum de Carvalho e Leroueil (2004), também foi investigada. Os parâmetros dos modelos foram determinados por ajuste de curva, utilizando técnicas de problema inverso; dois métodos foram usados: algoritmo genético (AG) e Levenberq-Marquardt. Vários parâmetros que influênciam o comportamento da SWCC são discutidos. A relação entre a sucção matricial e resistência ao cisalhamento foi avaliada através de ajuste de curva utilizando as equações propostas por Öberg (1995); Sällfors (1997), Vanapalli et al., (1996), Vilar (2007); Futai (2002); oito resultados experimentais foram analisados. Os vários parâmetros que influênciam a forma da SWCC e a parcela não saturadas da resistência ao cisalhamento são discutidos. / In the last decades, theories have been formulated to interpret the behavior of unsaturated soils and found to be consistent with the experimental response. Besides, several techniques for field and laboratory testing have been developed, as well. However, the experimental determination of unsaturated soil parameters is costly, time-consuming, requires particular test equipments and experienced technicians. As a result, these theories application are limited to academic researches and are barely used in engineering practice. To overcome this issue, several researchers proposed equations to mathematically represent the experimental behavior unsaturated soils. These propositions are based on physical indexes, soil characterization, and current laboratory tests or simply curve fitting. The relationship of soil-water content and matric suction, conventionally referred to as the soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) is also useful tool in the prediction of the engineering behavior of unsaturated soils. There are many equations to mathematically represent SWCC. Some are based on the assumption that its shape is directly related to the pore distribution, and, therefore, the grain size distribution. In these propositions the parameters are calibrated by curve adjustment of the experimental data. Others assume that the curve can be directly estimated from physical properties of soils. These proposals are simple and convenient for practical use, but are substantially incorrect since they disregard the influence of moisture content, stress level, soil structure and mineralogy. As a result, most of them have limited success depending on soil types. Some attempts have also been made to predict the variation of the shear strength with respect to matric suction. These procedures use SWCC as a tool either directly or indirectly along with the saturated strength parameters c and . This work discusses the applicability of three SWCC equations (Gardner, 1958; van Genuchten, 1980; and Fredlund and Xing, 1994) for twenty four residual soils from Brazil. The suitability of the normalized soil-water characteristic curve, proposed by Camapum de Carvalho and Leroueil (2004), was also investigated. Models parameters were determined by curve fitting, using inverse problem techniques; two optimization methods were used: Genetic Algorithm (GA) and Levenberq-Marquardt method. Several parameters that influence the SWCC behavior are discussed, as well. The relationship between matric suction and shear strength was evaluated by curve fitting using the equations proposed by Öberg and Sällfors (1995, 1997), Vanapalli et al., (1996), Vilar (2007) and Futai (2002); eight experimental results were analyzed. Several parameters that influence the SWCC behavior and the unsaturated shear strength are discussed, as well.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-07-29T15:18:19Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Camilla Rodrigues 1.pdf: 4672017 bytes, checksum: 12b69633a9d9499c45b4c515dc8a718b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-04-30 / The hydraulic behavior of a tropical and unsaturated soil profile of Aparecida de Goiânia-GO is presented. The main objective of this research was to contribute to the understanding of hydraulic properties of a tropical soil, with special emphasis on the soil-water characteristic curves and its hysteresis. The research work done was divided into two main parts: physical, chemical and mineralogical characterization; and hydraulic behavior for the unsaturated condition. The characterization tests indicate that the soil profile studied is formed by two horizons. The top layer of 1,50 m comprised of transported material and a bottom layer comprised of young residual soil. The results of particle size analysis have shown that the various sample preparation conditions (i.e., with or without drying, chemical and physical disaggregation) produce different grain-size distribution curves. A varying state of disaggregation can be achieved, that state being dependent on the stability of the soil aggregates. A fairly good correspondence between conventional hydrometer and laser diffraction analysis was achieved, considering supposedly equivalent aggregation conditions. The soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) was measured for both the natural and the soil reconstituted by mud consolidation. The role played by the soil fabric on the hydraulic behavior of the soil was analyzed. The SWCC was obtained for drying, wetting, and mixed paths, both in terms of total and matric suction. It was determined that the natural and reconstituted soils have distinct SWCCs. The disaggregation achieved with the reconstituted soil results in higher air-entry values and a unimodal SWCC, even when the natural soil presents a bimodal SWCC. Therefore, the pore-size distribution if affected by the different soil structures. The procedure for wetting and drying soil samples used along with the filter paper technique resulted in a number of SWCCs showing absence of hysteresis. The study of the moisture content along the specimen s heights revealed non-homogeneous moisture content distributions, even after 14 day of equilibrium of water potential. It was concluded that it is the very existence of SWCC hysteresis, along with a not sufficiently slow wetting and drying from the specimen surface that results in a non-homogeneous moisture content. / Um estudo do comportamento hidráulico de um perfil de solo tropical e não saturado de Aparecida de Goiânia-GO é apresentado nesta dissertação. O principal objetivo desta pesquisa foi contribuir para o entendimento das propriedades hidráulicas do solo, com especial ênfase na curva característica do solo e na sua histerese. O trabalho teve seu enfoque dividido em duas partes: caracterização física, química e mineralógica do perfil; e comportamento hidráulico do solo na condição não saturada. A partir da caracterização do solo, verificou-se que o perfil estudado se divide em dois extratos, um superior de 1,50 m de material transportado e um inferior residual jovem. Os resultados dos ensaios de granulometria mostraram que as várias combinações de preparação (i.e., com ou sem secagem prévia, desagregação química e desagregação física), produzem curvas granulométricas distintas. Variados graus de desagregação podem ser atingidos, sendo estes dependentes do grau de estabilidade das agregações do solo. Obteve-se uma boa correspondência entre a granulometria convencional e aquela utilizando o granulômetro a laser, para condições de desagregação supostamente equivalentes. A curva característica foi determinada tanto para o material natural, quanto para o solo reconstituído por adensamento a partir do estado de lama. Desta forma, procurou-se verificar o papel da estrutura no comportamento hidráulico do solo. As curvas características foram obtidas em trajetórias de secagem, molhagem, e mistas, tanto em termos de sucção matricial, quando de sucção total. Observou-se que o solo natural possui curvas características distintas do solo reconstituído. A desestruturação do solo reconstituído resulta em um maior valor de entrada de ar e uma curva característica unimodal, mesmo quando o material natural apresenta curva bimodal. Pode-se concluir que a distribuição de poros do material natural é afetada pela estruturação do solo. O procedimento de umedecimento e secagem utilizado com o método do papel filtro resultou em algumas curvas características com ausência de histerese. O estudo da distribuição da umidade ao longo da altura dos corpos de prova revelou que não se obteve umidades homogêneas, mesmo após os 14 dias, adotados como período para equilíbrio do potencial da água do solo. Pôde-se concluir que é exatamente a existência da histerese, aliada a um umedecimento ou secagem a partir da face dos corpos de prova que não são suficientemente lentos, que resultam na não homogeneidade de umidade.

Deep geological repository (DGR) for disposal of high-level radioactive waste (HLW) is designed to rely on successive superimposed barrier systems to isolate the waste from the biosphere. This multiple barrier system comprises the natural geological barrier provided by the repository host rock and its surrounding and an engineered barrier system (EBS). The EBS represents the synthetic, engineered materials placed within the natural barrier, comprising array of components such as waste form, waste canisters, buffer materials, backfill and seals. The buffer will enclose the waste canisters from all directions and act as a barrier between canisters and host rock of the repository. It is designed to stabilise the evolving thermo-hydro-mechanical-chemical stresses in the repository over a long period (nearly 1000 years) to retard radionuclides from reaching biosphere. Bentonite clay or bentonite-sand mix have been chosen as buffer materials in EBS design in various countries pursuing deep geological repository method. The bentonite buffer is the most important barrier among the other EBS components for a geological repository. The safety of repository depends to a large extent on proper functioning of buffer over a very long period of time during which it must remain physically, chemically and mineralogically stable. The long term stability of bentonite buffer depends on varying temperature and evolution of groundwater composition of host rocks in a complex way. The groundwater in the vicinity of deep crystalline rock is often characterized by high solute concentrations and the geotechnical engineering response of bentonite buffer could be affected by the dissolved salt concentration of the inflowing ground water. Also during the initial period, radiogenic heat produced in waste canisters would radiate into buffer and the heat generated would lead to drying and some shrinkage of bentonite buffer close to canister. This could alter the dry density, moisture content and in turn the hydro-mechanical properties of bentonite buffer in DGR conditions. India has variety of bentonite deposits in North-Western states of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Previous studies on Indian bentonites suggest that bentonite from Barmer district of Rajasthan (termed as Barmer-1 bentonite) is suitable to serve as buffer material in DGR conditions. Nuclear power agencies of several countries have identified suitable bentonites for use as buffer in DGR through laboratory experiments and large scale underground testing facilities. Physico-chemical, mineralogical and engineering properties of Kunigel VI, Kyungju, GMZ, FoCa clay, MX-80, FEBEX and Avonseal bentonites have been extensively studied by Japan, South Korea, China, Belgium, Sweden, Spain, Canada. It is hence essential to examine the suitability of Barmer-1 bentonite as potential buffer in DGR and compare its physico-chemical and hydromechanical properties with bentonite buffers identified by other countries. The significant factors that impact the long-term stability of bentonite buffer in DGR include variations in moisture content, dry density and pore water chemistry. With a view to address these issues, the hydromechanical response of 70 % Barmer-1 bentonite + 30 % river sand mix (termed bentonite enhanced sand, BES specimens) under varying moisture content, dry density and pore water salt concentration conditions have been examined. The broad scope of the work includes: 1) Characterise the physico-chemical and hydro-mechanical properties of Barmer-1 bentonite from Rajasthan, India and compare its properties with bentonite buffers reported in literature. 2) Examine the influence of variations in dissolved salt concentration (of infiltrating solution), dry density and moisture content of compacted BES specimens on their hydro-mechanical response; the hydro-mechanical properties include, swell pressure, soil water characteristic curve (SWCC), unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, moisture diffusivity and unconfined compression strength. Organization of thesis: After the first introductory chapter, a detailed review of literature is performed to highlight the need for detailed characterisation of physico-chemical and hydromechanical properties of Barmer-1 bentonite for its possible application in DGR in the Indian context. Further, existing literature on hydro-mechanical response of bentonite buffer to changes in physical (degree of saturation/moisture content, dry density) and physico-chemical (solute concentration in pore water) is reviewed to define the scope and objectives of the present thesis in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 presents a detailed experimental programme of the study. Chapter 4 characterises Barmer-1 bentonite for physico-chemical (cation exchange capacity, pore water salinity, exchangeable sodium percentage) and hydro-mechanical properties, such as, swell pressure, saturated permeability, soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) and unconfined compression strength. The properties of Barmer-1 bentonite are compared with bentonite buffers reported in literature and generalized equations for determining swell pressure and saturated permeability coefficient of bentonite buffers are arrived at. Chapter 5 describes a method to determine solute concentrations in the inter-lamellar and free-solutions of compacted BES (bentonite enhanced sand) specimens. The solute concentrations in micro and macro pore solutions are used to examine the role of osmotic flow on swell pressures developed by compacted BES specimens (dry density 1.50-2.00 Mg/m3) inundated with distilled water and NaCl solutions (1000-5000 mg/L). The number of hydration layers developed by the compacted BES specimens on inundation with salt solutions in constant volume swell pressure tests is controlled by cation hydration/osmotic flow. The cation hydration of specimens compacted to dry density of 2.00 Mg/m3 is mainly driven by matric suction prevailing in the clay microtructure as the number of hydration layers developed at wetting equilibrium are independent of the total dissolved solids (TDS) of the wetting solution. Consequently, the swell pressures of specimens compacted to 2.00 Mg/m3 were insensitive to the salt concentration of the inundating solution. The cation hydration of specimens compacted to dry density of 1.50 Mg/m3 is driven by both matric suction (prevailing in the clay micro-structure) and osmotic flow as the number of hydration layers developed at wetting equilibrium is sensitive to the TDS of the wetting solution. Expectedly, the swell pressures of specimens compacted to 1.50 Mg/m3 responded to changes in salt concentration of the inundating solution. The 1.75 Mg/m3 specimens show behaviour that is intermediate to the 1.50 and 2.00 Mg/m3 series specimens. Chapter 6 examines the influence of initial degree of saturation on swell pressures developed by the compacted BES specimens (dry density range: 1.40- 2.00 Mg/m3) on wetting with distilled water from micro-structural considerations. The micro-structure of the bentonite specimens are examined in the compacted and wetted states by performing X-ray diffraction measurements. The initial degree of saturation is varied by adding requisite amount of distilled water to the oven-dried BES mix and compacting the moist mixes to the desired density. The montmorillonite fraction in the BES specimens is responsible for moisture absorption during compaction and development of swell pressure in the constant volume oedometer tests. Consequently, it was considered reasonable to calculate degree of saturation based on EMDD (effective montmorillonite dry density) values and correlate the developed swell pressure values with degree of saturation of montmorillonite voids (Sr,MF). XRD measurements with compacted and wetted specimens demonstrated that if specimens of density series developed similar number of hydration layers on wetting under constant volume condition they exhibited similar swell pressures, as was the case for specimens belonging to 1.40 and 1.50 Mg/m3 series. With specimens belonging to 1.75 and 2.00 Mg/m3 series, greater number of hydration layers were developed by specimens that were less saturated initially (smaller initial Sr,MF) and consequently such specimens developed larger swell pressures. When specimens developed similar number of hydration layers in the wetted state, the compaction dry density determined the swell pressure. Chapter 7 examines the influence of salt concentration of infiltrating solution (sodium chloride concentration ranges from 1000- 5000 mg/L) on SWCC relations, unsaturated permeability and moisture diffusivity of compacted BES specimens. Analysis of the experimental and Brooks and Corey best fit plots revealed that infiltration of sodium chloride solutions had progressively lesser influence on the micro-structure and consequently on the SWCC relations with increase in dry density of the compacted specimens. The micro-structure and SWCC relations of specimens compacted to 1.50 Mg/m3 were most affected, specimens compacted to 1.75 Mg/m3 were less affected, while specimens compacted to 2.00 Mg/m3 were unaffected by infiltration of sodium chloride solutions. Variations in dry density of compacted bentonite impacts the pore space available for moisture flow, while, salinity of wetting fluid impacts the pore structure from associated physico-chemical changes in clay structure. Experimental results showed that the unsaturated permeability coefficient is insensitive to variations in dry density and solute concentration of wetting liquid, while, the effective hydraulic diffusivity is impacted by variations in these parameters. Chapter 8 summarises the major findings of the study.

Deep geological repository (DGR) for disposal of high-level radioactive waste (HLW) is designed to rely on successive superimposed barrier systems to isolate the waste from the biosphere. This multiple barrier system comprises the natural geological barrier provided by the repository host rock and its surrounding and an engineered barrier system (EBS). The EBS represents the synthetic, engineered materials placed within the natural barrier, comprising array of components such as waste form, waste canisters, buffer materials, backfill and seals. The buffer will enclose the waste canisters from all directions and act as a barrier between canisters and host rock of the repository. It is designed to stabilise the evolving thermo-hydro-mechanical-chemical stresses in the repository over a long period (nearly 1000 years) to retard radionuclides from reaching biosphere. Bentonite clay or bentonite-sand mix have been chosen as buffer materials in EBS design in various countries pursuing deep geological repository method. The bentonite buffer is the most important barrier among the other EBS components for a geological repository. The safety of repository depends to a large extent on proper functioning of buffer over a very long period of time during which it must remain physically, chemically and mineralogically stable. The long term stability of bentonite buffer depends on varying temperature and evolution of groundwater composition of host rocks in a complex way. The groundwater in the vicinity of deep crystalline rock is often characterized by high solute concentrations and the geotechnical engineering response of bentonite buffer could be affected by the dissolved salt concentration of the inflowing ground water. Also during the initial period, radiogenic heat produced in waste canisters would radiate into buffer and the heat generated would lead to drying and some shrinkage of bentonite buffer close to canister. This could alter the dry density, moisture content and in turn the hydro-mechanical properties of bentonite buffer in DGR conditions. India has variety of bentonite deposits in North-Western states of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Previous studies on Indian bentonites suggest that bentonite from Barmer district of Rajasthan (termed as Barmer-1 bentonite) is suitable to serve as buffer material in DGR conditions. Nuclear power agencies of several countries have identified suitable bentonites for use as buffer in DGR through laboratory experiments and large scale underground testing facilities. Physico-chemical, mineralogical and engineering properties of Kunigel VI, Kyungju, GMZ, FoCa clay, MX-80, FEBEX and Avonseal bentonites have been extensively studied by Japan, South Korea, China, Belgium, Sweden, Spain, Canada. It is hence essential to examine the suitability of Barmer-1 bentonite as potential buffer in DGR and compare its physico-chemical and hydromechanical properties with bentonite buffers identified by other countries. The significant factors that impact the long-term stability of bentonite buffer in DGR include variations in moisture content, dry density and pore water chemistry. With a view to address these issues, the hydromechanical response of 70 % Barmer-1 bentonite + 30 % river sand mix (termed bentonite enhanced sand, BES specimens) under varying moisture content, dry density and pore water salt concentration conditions have been examined. The broad scope of the work includes: 1) Characterise the physico-chemical and hydro-mechanical properties of Barmer-1 bentonite from Rajasthan, India and compare its properties with bentonite buffers reported in literature. 2) Examine the influence of variations in dissolved salt concentration (of infiltrating solution), dry density and moisture content of compacted BES specimens on their hydro-mechanical response; the hydro-mechanical properties include, swell pressure, soil water characteristic curve (SWCC), unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, moisture diffusivity and unconfined compression strength. Organization of thesis: After the first introductory chapter, a detailed review of literature is performed to highlight the need for detailed characterisation of physico-chemical and hydromechanical properties of Barmer-1 bentonite for its possible application in DGR in the Indian context. Further, existing literature on hydro-mechanical response of bentonite buffer to changes in physical (degree of saturation/moisture content, dry density) and physico-chemical (solute concentration in pore water) is reviewed to define the scope and objectives of the present thesis in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 presents a detailed experimental programme of the study. Chapter 4 characterises Barmer-1 bentonite for physico-chemical (cation exchange capacity, pore water salinity, exchangeable sodium percentage) and hydro-mechanical properties, such as, swell pressure, saturated permeability, soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) and unconfined compression strength. The properties of Barmer-1 bentonite are compared with bentonite buffers reported in literature and generalized equations for determining swell pressure and saturated permeability coefficient of bentonite buffers are arrived at. Chapter 5 describes a method to determine solute concentrations in the inter-lamellar and free-solutions of compacted BES (bentonite enhanced sand) specimens. The solute concentrations in micro and macro pore solutions are used to examine the role of osmotic flow on swell pressures developed by compacted BES specimens (dry density 1.50-2.00 Mg/m3) inundated with distilled water and NaCl solutions (1000-5000 mg/L). The number of hydration layers developed by the compacted BES specimens on inundation with salt solutions in constant volume swell pressure tests is controlled by cation hydration/osmotic flow. The cation hydration of specimens compacted to dry density of 2.00 Mg/m3 is mainly driven by matric suction prevailing in the clay microtructure as the number of hydration layers developed at wetting equilibrium are independent of the total dissolved solids (TDS) of the wetting solution. Consequently, the swell pressures of specimens compacted to 2.00 Mg/m3 were insensitive to the salt concentration of the inundating solution. The cation hydration of specimens compacted to dry density of 1.50 Mg/m3 is driven by both matric suction (prevailing in the clay micro-structure) and osmotic flow as the number of hydration layers developed at wetting equilibrium is sensitive to the TDS of the wetting solution. Expectedly, the swell pressures of specimens compacted to 1.50 Mg/m3 responded to changes in salt concentration of the inundating solution. The 1.75 Mg/m3 specimens show behaviour that is intermediate to the 1.50 and 2.00 Mg/m3 series specimens. Chapter 6 examines the influence of initial degree of saturation on swell pressures developed by the compacted BES specimens (dry density range: 1.40- 2.00 Mg/m3) on wetting with distilled water from micro-structural considerations. The micro-structure of the bentonite specimens are examined in the compacted and wetted states by performing X-ray diffraction measurements. The initial degree of saturation is varied by adding requisite amount of distilled water to the oven-dried BES mix and compacting the moist mixes to the desired density. The montmorillonite fraction in the BES specimens is responsible for moisture absorption during compaction and development of swell pressure in the constant volume oedometer tests. Consequently, it was considered reasonable to calculate degree of saturation based on EMDD (effective montmorillonite dry density) values and correlate the developed swell pressure values with degree of saturation of montmorillonite voids (Sr,MF). XRD measurements with compacted and wetted specimens demonstrated that if specimens of density series developed similar number of hydration layers on wetting under constant volume condition they exhibited similar swell pressures, as was the case for specimens belonging to 1.40 and 1.50 Mg/m3 series. With specimens belonging to 1.75 and 2.00 Mg/m3 series, greater number of hydration layers were developed by specimens that were less saturated initially (smaller initial Sr,MF) and consequently such specimens developed larger swell pressures. When specimens developed similar number of hydration layers in the wetted state, the compaction dry density determined the swell pressure. Chapter 7 examines the influence of salt concentration of infiltrating solution (sodium chloride concentration ranges from 1000- 5000 mg/L) on SWCC relations, unsaturated permeability and moisture diffusivity of compacted BES specimens. Analysis of the experimental and Brooks and Corey best fit plots revealed that infiltration of sodium chloride solutions had progressively lesser influence on the micro-structure and consequently on the SWCC relations with increase in dry density of the compacted specimens. The micro-structure and SWCC relations of specimens compacted to 1.50 Mg/m3 were most affected, specimens compacted to 1.75 Mg/m3 were less affected, while specimens compacted to 2.00 Mg/m3 were unaffected by infiltration of sodium chloride solutions. Variations in dry density of compacted bentonite impacts the pore space available for moisture flow, while, salinity of wetting fluid impacts the pore structure from associated physico-chemical changes in clay structure. Experimental results showed that the unsaturated permeability coefficient is insensitive to variations in dry density and solute concentration of wetting liquid, while, the effective hydraulic diffusivity is impacted by variations in these parameters. Chapter 8 summarises the major findings of the study.

Cette thèse concerne la caractérisation expérimentale d’un sable limoneux provenant du barrage de Livet – Gavet (38) dans le cadre du projet ANR TerreDurable avec plusieurs objectifs : 1- Caractériser au travers d’essais de laboratoire le comportement hydromécanique d’un sable fin limoneux (sol A1 dans la classification GTR) en fonction de son état de saturation. Lors de cette étude, un accent particulier est porté sur la caractérisation de ce comportement dans le domaine proche de la saturation. 2- Interpréter le comportement hydrique du matériau sur chemin de drainage – imbibition en relation avec l’analyse de sa microstructure. 3- Fournir d’un point de vue général une base de données et d’analyses exhaustive permettant le développement et la calibration de modèles de comportement des sols fins proches de la saturation, en particulier en considérant des chemins de chargement hydromécanique complexes. Pour l’ensemble de cette étude, le matériau est considéré sous deux états : soit à l’état de pâte (matériau normalement consolidé) préparée à une teneur en eau proche de la limite de liquidité, soit sous forme compactée (matériau sur-consolidé) à différentes énergies de compactage et différentes teneurs en eau initiales. / This thesis concerns the experimental characterization of a silty sand from the Livet - Gavet dam (38) as part of the ANR TerreDurable project, for following objectives: 1- Through laboratory tests, characterize the hydro-mechanical behaviour of a fine silty sand (Type A1 in the GTR classification) according to its saturation state. In this study, particular emphasis is placed on the characterization of this behaviour in the near-saturated domain. 2- Interpret the water behaviour of material on the drainage - imbibition cycles, in relation to the analysis of its microstructure. 3- From a general point of view, provide a comprehensive database and analysis allowing the development and calibration of models of near-saturated fine soil's behaviour, in particular, by considering complex hydro-mechanical loading paths. For all tests in this study, the material is considered in two states: either in the state of paste (normally consolidated material) prepared at water content close to the limit of liquidity, or in compacted state (over consolidated material) at different compaction energies and different initial water contents.

Under hösten 2019 har Vattenfall Research & Development byggt en experimentell jordfyllningsdamm i Älvkarleby med dimensionerna 20x15x4 meter. Delar av experimentdammen är konventionellt konstruerade och har installerats med geoteknisk utrustning som utgörs av bland annat inklinometrar och portrycksgivare. Andra delar av experimentdammen har byggts in med defekter som ska representera åldersrelaterade skador eller utförandefel vid konstruktion. Experimentdammen ger möjlighet att under realistiska och kontrollerade förhållanden studera det mekaniska beteendet i samband med fyllning av vatten och vidare drift med hjälp av den geotekniska instrumenteringen samt med stöd av numerisk modellering. I detta examensarbete, som utgör en del av Luleå tekniska universitets forskningsprojekt mot experimentdammen, har experimentdammens beteende i form av deformationer och portryck studerats under uppfyllnad och drift fram till sommaren 2021. Detta har utförts genom simuleringar i det finita elementprogrammet PLAXIS 2D 2019 för en tvärsektion av experimentdammen i plant-deformationstillstånd. Mätpunkterna i modellen har baserats på faktisk placering av den geotekniska instrumenteringen. Den finita elementmodellen av experimentdammen har konstruerats och fyllts med vatten enligt dokumentation från fält. En flödes-deformationsanalys, med den konstitutiva modellen Hardening Soil och den hydrauliska modellen van Genuchten, har tillämpats för att modellera den simultana utvecklingen av portryck och deformationer under uppfyllnad. Materialparametervärden för den finita elementmodelleringen har erhållits från Vattenfall R&D, relevant litteratur och från fält- och laboratorieförsök. I fält har vattenvolymeterförsök utförts på tätkärnan och i laboratoriemiljö har modifierad proctorpackning, dränerade konventionella triaxialförsök, permeabilitetsförsök och övertryckskapillarimeterförsök utförts på tätkärnans material. Resultatet från övertryckskapillarimeterförsök har anpassats mot den hydrauliska modellen van Genuchten för att uppskatta en vattenbindningskurva som beskriver det icke-linjära förhållandet mellan jordens vatteninnehåll och porundertryck, det vill säga det omättade förhållandet. Vattenbindningskurvor för övriga materialzoner har uppskattats baserat på litteratur. Verktyget PLAXIS SoilTest har använts för att optimera materialparametervärden för tätkärnan mot resultat från utförda triaxialförsök. Materialparametrarna E50ref, Eoedref, Eurref, m, c, och ϕ har optimerats fram till brott i triaxial belastning. En känslighetsanalys har utförts för reduktion av filterzonernas och stödfyllningens styvhetsmoduler och deras inverkan på horisontella deformationer i dammkroppen under uppfyllnad. Känslighetsanalysen indikerar att finfiltrets styvhetsmoduler har störst inverkan och grovfiltrets styvhetsmoduler har minst inverkan på de horisontella deformationerna. Studiens resultat visar att magnituden av horisontella och vertikala deformationer kommer vara som störst i den övre delen av dammkroppen och uppgår där till 3,5 respektive 4,0 mm. Dammkroppens huvudsakliga rörelse kommer vara i nedströms riktning och det observerades hur en kontaktzon mellan uppströms filterzon och tätkärnan utgör en gräns för riktning av deformationer. Faktiskt uppmätta rörelser i installerade inklinometrar kunde inte jämföras mot deformationer i den finita elementmodellen eftersom författarens tolkning indikerar på att botten av inklinometrarna har rört på sig, och mätpunkterna i botten av modellen är fixerade. Modellen visar hur en fördröjd utveckling av vattenmättnad sker genom tätkärnan, där uppströms sida av tätkärnan reagerar snabbare på förändringar i vattennivå jämfört med nedströms sida av tätkärnan som uppvisar en fördröjd respons. Vid en sänkning av vattennivån observerades hur tätkärnan håller kvar vatten ovan portryckslinjen medan de grövre materialen dränerar i takt med vattennivåns sänkning. Utvecklingen av de simulerade portrycken i modellen under uppfyllnad och drift överensstämmer bra med de uppmätta portrycken i experimentdammen, när portrycken är positiva. Det observeras hur den finita elementmodellen överskattar negativa portryck (porundertryck). Portrycken i modellen når ett stadigt tillstånd ungefär 115 dagar efter att fyllningen av vatten påbörjats. Den finita elementmodellen lyckas att återge det teoretiska beteendet av jordfyllningsdammar under fyllning i form av huvudsakliga riktningar av deformationer och utveckling av vattenmättnad i tätkärnan. Denna studie bidrar till en djupare förståelse för experimentdammens, och i allmänhet jordfyllningsdammars, mekaniska beteende under uppfyllnad. Resultaten från den finita elementmodellen kan ur ett dammsäkerhetsperspektiv användas för erhålla indikationer på utvecklingen av deformationer, portryck och vattenmättnadsgrad i jordfyllningsdammar under uppfyllnad, och även under en tillfällig sänkning av vattennivån under den första fyllningen. Studien ger också indikationer på vilka materialparametrar som är viktiga vid numerisk modellering av mekaniskt beteende i jordfyllningsdammar. / During the autumn of 2019, Vattenfall Research & Development constructed an experimental embankment dam in Älvkarleby with the dimensions 20x15x4 metres. Parts of the experimental dam are conventionally constructed and have been equipped with geotechnical instrumentation which consist of, among other things, inclinometers and pore pressure transducers. Other parts of the experimental dam have built in defects to represent age-related damages or execution errors during construction. The experimental embankment dam provides the opportunity to, under realistic and controlled conditions, study the mechanical behaviour during filling of water and operation by means of the geotechnical instrumentation and the use of numerical modelling. In this master’s thesis, which forms part of Luleå University of Technology’s research project towards the experimental dam, the behaviour of the experimental dam in terms of deformations and pore pressures have been studied during filling and operation until the summer of 2021. This has been performed by simulations in the finite element program PLAXIS 2D 2019 for a cross section of the experimental dam under plane-strain conditions. Measuring points in the model have been based on the actual location of the geotechnical instrumentation. The finite element model of the experimental dam has been constructed and filled according to documentation from field. A fully-coupled flow deformation analysis, with the constitutive model Hardening Soil and hydraulic model van Genuchten, has been utilised to model the simultaneous development of pore pressure and deformations during filling. Values of material parameters for the finite element modelling have been received from Vattenfall R&D, relevant literature and from field- and laboratory tests. In the field, balloon tests have been performed on the core material. In laboratory environment, modified proctor compaction tests, drained conventional triaxial tests, permeability tests and pressure plate tests have been performed on the core material. Results from the pressure plate tests have been adapted to the hydraulic model van Genuchten to estimate a soil-water characteristic curve in order to describe the non-linear relation between the water content and suction in the soil, i.e. unsaturated conditions. Soil-water characteristic curves for the other material zones have been estimated based on literature. The tool PLAXIS SoilTest has been used to optimise material parameter values of the core against the results from conducted triaxial tests. The material parameters E50ref, Eoedref, Eurref, m, c, and ϕ have been optimised until failure in triaxial loading. A sensitivity analysis has been carried out, by reducing stiffness moduli of the filter zones and the shoulder material, to investigate the influence on horizontal deformations in the dam body during filling. The sensitivity analysis indicates that the stiffness moduli of the fine filter have the largest impact and the stiffness moduli of the coarse filter have the least impact on the horizontal deformations. The results of the study show that the magnitude of horizontal and vertical deformations will be largest in the upper part of the dam body and amounts to 3.5 and 4.0 mm, respectively. The main movement of the dam body will be in the downstream direction and it was observed how a contact zone between the upstream filter zone and the core forms a boundary for direction of deformations. Actual measured movements in the installed inclinometers could not be compared to deformations in the finite element model because the author’s interpretation indicates that the bottom of the inclinometers have moved, and the measuring points at the bottom of the model are fixed. The model shows how a delayed development of saturation occur through the core, where the upstream side of the core responds more quickly to changes in water level compared with the downstream side of the core which show a delayed response. At a lowering of the water level, it was observed how the core retains water above the phreatic line while the coarser materials drain as the water level decreases. Development of the simulated pore pressures in the model during filling and operation corresponds well with the measured pore pressures in the experimental dam, when the pore pressures are positive. It is observed how the finite element model overestimates negative pore pressures (suction). The pore pressures in the model reaches a steady state approximately 115 days after filling of water started. The finite element model succeeds in reproducing the theoretical behaviour of embankment dams during filling in terms of main directions of deformations and development of saturation in the core. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of the experimental dam, and in general mechanical behaviour of embankment dams during filling. The results from the finite element model can be used from a dam safety perspective to obtain indications on the development of deformations, pore pressures and degree of saturation in embankment dams during filling, and also for a temporary lowering of the water level during the first filling. The study also provides indications of which material parameters that are of importance in numerical modelling of mechanical behaviour in embankment dams.