Thesis (M.A. in National Security Affairs)--Naval Postgraduate School, December 2002. / Thesis advisor(s): H. Lyman Miller, Randall J. Hess. Includes bibliographical references (p. 71-75). Also available online.

Thesis (M.S. in Applied Science (Physical Oceanography))--Naval Postgraduate School, June 2005. / Thesis Advisor(s): Steven R. Ramp. Includes bibliographical references (p.61-63). Also available online.

This thesis aims to describe the two dynamics present in the maritime disputes of the South China Sea: the negotiation dynamic and the military dynamic. This thesis will focus on two aspects: first, the history of the confidence building measures in the South China Sea; and second, analysis of each relevant nations’ motivation for the current stage of the Southeast Asian military dynamic. The role of ARF in this process and the characteristics of the Track I and Track II diplomatic tools are analyzed along with its difficulties in progressing from the CBMs to preventive diplomacy (PD). The effects of the CBMs’ lack of progress on the current military power acquisitions of the South China Sea claimant states are objects of analysis as well. Within of the analysis of the confidence-building measures, this thesis also contemplates the role of China as the most important variable in the dispute. The second part of this thesis works with the connections between the developments of the South China Sea and the current military buildup in Southeast Asia. Aiming to identify the causes of the military dynamic, the thesis describe the current military capabilities of the main actors of the South China Sea disputes; namely China, Vietnam, Malaysia and the Philippines. Moreover, it provides a detailed description of the new equipment acquisitions and the impacts, in terms of the power capabilities, of these actors. A final analysis of the current panorama of the disputes is conducted, analyzing the key events between 2009 and 2010. This thesis concludes that the CBM’s efforts suffer from structural bottlenecks as the adamant adherence to the concept of sovereignty impedes the bloc’s advancement in the establishment of solutions for the maritime territorial disputes. The absence of diplomatic solutions has directly influenced the momentum of militarization in the Southeast Asia.

The study investigated seasonal and spatial distributions and biogeochemical processes of dissolved and particulate organic matter in the upper layer of northern South China Sea (SCS). Concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), nitrogen (DON) and phosphorus (DOP) in the euphotic zone of northern SCS were in the range of 55-147 £gM, 2.4-9.9 £gM and 0.13-0.38£gM, respectively. A maximum concentration of DOC, DON and DOP, was found in the station close to the Pearl River due to freshwater input. The concentration of DOC decreased generally with distance away from the continent, but the ratio of DOC/TOC increased with distance primarily due to trophic dynamics. Concentrations of DOM were generally the highest in the surface layer and decreased with depth, but their C/N/P ratios increased with depth, indicating that both nitrogen and phosphorus were preferentially decomposed over carbon. Below the mixed layer, DOC degradation contributed only about 16% of AOU (apparent oxygen utilization). Inverse correlation between DOM and density was significant in the upper layer suggesting that the distributions of DOC, DON and DOP were largely controlled by vertical mixing. Inverse correlation was also significant between DOM and AOU, showing the effect of microbial decomposition on DOM in deep water. Concentrations of POC, PON and POP in the euphotic zone were in the range of 1.8-17.7£gM, 0.18-2.45£gM and 10-163 nM, respectively. Relatively high concentrations of POC, PON and POP in the surface water of inner shelf were also likely attributed to the input of the freshwater. Significant correlation between POC abundance and Chl-a suggested that phytoplankton abundance may control the distribution of POC. The ratio of ¡µPOC/¡µPON in the euphotic zone ranged from 4.57 to 7.3, implying various effects of bacteria and planktons on POM. A simple one-dimensional vertical eddy diffusion model was applied to estimate downward fluxes of DOC and POC and upward fluxes of nutrients across the boundary of euphotic layer and/or thermocline base. Total downward fluxes of organic carbon (OC) were compared with total upward nutrient-derived OC fluxes. The results suggested that additional nutrient sources in the euphotic layer were required to balance OC budgets. The ratios of DIN/DIP were much smaller than the Redifield N/P Ratio of 16:1, suggesting a status of N-limitation in the euphotic zone. The DOC/DON ratio, however, was much higher than the Redfield ratio. These results implied that DOM must play an important role in modulating nutrient cycling and food web dynamics in the euphotic layer.

The subject of this study was to provide the link between benthic foraminiferal assemblages and the surrounding environments. Stained sediment samples were collected from northeast and southwest South China Sea. In addition to the faunal census, cluster analysis and the stable isotope of benthic foraminiferal shells were measured. The results were compared with other parameters, such as %TOC, %CaCO3, and coarse fraction in the sediment. The spatial distribution of stained and total benthic foraminifera seems not to be related with either TOC contents in sediment or the sampling water depth. This is probably because of the TOC contents may not reflect the food supply directly. Cluster analysis of the faunal assemblages in Kaoping submarine canyon shows that all species in this study could be divided into three main groups. The first group is the shallow-intermediate infauna. It distributes in the inner shelf and the proportion decreases as the water depth increased. The second group is those species live in the shallow water. The third group is infauna along the outer shelf and slope. The cluster analysis of the faunal assemblages in the Sunda Shelf can be also divided into three groups. The first group is infaunal taxa. The second is epifauna- shallow infauna and disseminates in the shallow water. The third group is epifaunal taxa. The result of stable isotope of benthic foraminiferal shells in Kaoping submarine canyon does not show any clear relationship between oxygen and carbon isotopes. It is possibly because the selected species is not suitable for isotope analysis or the specimens are not sufficient. But the isotope measurements obtained from the Sunda Shelf reveal the great consistence with the variation of temperature and salinity in bottom water. Some species found in the Sunda Shelf even have great potential in paleoceanography study.

This research investigated the spatial and seasonal distributions of coccolithophorids in surface water of the northern South China Sea. The surveyes covered the period from April 2002 to July 2003 and 5 curises , 25 sampling station during four season. Abundance and taxa of coccolithophorids were studied by the scanning electron microscopy. A total of 28 species were identified. Emiliania huxleyi dominated in the surface water of the South China Sea, and has highest relative abundance (61.7%), then were Gephyrocapsa oceanica (16.0%), G. ericsonii (6.9%), Umbellosphaera irregularis (4.3%), and U. tenuis (4.9%). The cell density of coccolithophorids ranged from 1.98 to 127.43¡Ñ103 cells L-1 during study period. The highest average cell density of coccolithophorids occured in the winter (61.76¡Ó28.19¡Ñ103 cells L-1), lowest in the summer (8.44¡Ó1.67¡Ñ103 cells L-1). Coccolithophorids cell density in basin showed a positive linear relation with [NO2+NO3] and SRP (p<0.05). Principal component analysis indicates coccolithophorids could be identified as two separate groups: spring-winter and summer-autumn. E. huxleyi dominated in spring and winter, followed by G. oceanica. U. irregularis and U. tenuis dominated in the summer and autumn. Spectially, coccolithophorids communities differed in the shelf and the basin, with seasonal changes. In the shelf, E. huxleyi dominated in the spring, summer, and autumn, and followed by G. oceanica. G. oceanica dominated in the winter, and followed by E. huxleyi. In the basin, while E. huxleyi and G. oceanica dominated in the spring and winter, U. irregularis and U. tenuis dominated in the summer.

Abstract The primary objective of this study was to determine the isotopic variation of the sedimentary organic carbon (£_13Corg) in the sediment samples of the gravity core 17950-2. The core was retrieved from the northern South China Sea during ¡§Monitoring Monsoon¡¨ cruise onboard R/V Sonne in 1994. The £_13Corg data were further compared with other proxies, such as foraminiferal £_18O and £_13C, TOC wt%, and CaCO3 wt% to decipher the late Quaternary evolution of climate change from the South China Sea for the last 200 ky. Prior to 65 ka, the £_13Corg, calibrated TOC wt% (TOC ex wt%), and Terrestrial wt% fluctuated synchronously. The increased TOC ex wt% and Terrestrial wt% were consistent with the enriched £_13Corg, implying the enhanced productivity due to the increased terrestrial input. The enhanced glacial productivity could have been caused by the increase in terrestrial input and mixed layer by wind-driven upwelling. The South China Sea, however, is a nitrogen-limited basin. The enhanced nitrogen fixation induced by increased dust input can also be a potential candidate that is responsible for the elevated productivity during glacials. Theoretically, the £_13Corg is utilized as a powerful tool to determine the carbon ratio between marine and terrestrial origin in the shelf area and reconstruct the pCO2 history of the low-productivity open ocean. According to TOC ex wt%, the productivity of the northern South China Sea were significantly higher in glacials than interglacials. Therefore, the variation of pCO2 of the northern South China Sea can not be reconstructed properly based on £_13Corg record solely .

The disputed territorial claims in the South China Sea have become a complicated and potential source of international conflict, which involves disputes over sovereignty in the South China Sea, maritime borders, and resources. The claimants include regional countries such as, Taiwan, Mainland China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei as well as the United States and Japan, which are outside of the region. The level of attention to the South China Sea issues has increased due to its important strategic location and critical sea-lanes. Moreover, discovery of rich yields of hydrocarbon has drawn the interest of many regional countries, and thus, lead to periodic conflicts. The regulations of the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea made claimants scramble to reinforce their maritime border claims of and caused disputes due to overlapping territories. Mainland China, a newly developing regional power, believes that the sovereignty of the South China Sea belongs to it based on historical or legal status. China displays great ambition and intention toward claiming sovereignty in the South China Sea because of its strategic needs, demands for resources needed for economic growth and development, and persistence in reinforcing its sovereignty. It uses its authoritarian power to intervene disputes, which results in heightened tensions. This research paper discusses the strategies and approaches adopted by Mainland China to handle disputes involving the South China Sea. The two themes discussed in this study include the influential factors of ASEAN, the United States and Japan toward the disputes of the South China Sea and the resolution that Mainland China uses to deal with such disputes.

In order to understand the input of South China Sea Water (SCSW) onto the Kuroshio and the distributions of carbonate parameters in Kuroshio Water (KW), the temperature, salinity, pH and TCO2 were measured for the seawater samples collected from the Kuroshio regime off eastern Taiwan during the cruise ORI 650 in July 2002. The distributions of temperature and salinity show that a front existed approximately along 123.5&#x00BA;E, which separated the influenced KW by SCSW from typical KW. East of this front the water is characterized by temperature and salinity of KW, while west of it the water was mainly a mixture of the SCSW and the KW. After flowing out from the Luson Straint, the SCSW deflected northward along the east cost of Taiwan, and continuously mixed with the KW. The mixing of SCSW with KW could be traced northward as far as 22&#x00BA;N and reach as deep as 1250m. Based on the measured carbonate data, the calculated IC/OC ratio ranges from 22% to 23% in the deep water of the Kuroshio region. Additionally, the penetration depth of anthropogenic CO2 was estimated to be about 1200m by using Chen¡¦s equation (Chen et al., 1986). Furthermore, the difference of pCO2 between atmosphere and surface seawater was evaluated to be about -5matm, indicating that the surface water in the study area was nearly saturated with pCO2 during the sampling period.

Temporal and spatial distribution in species composition and abundance of chaetognaths in relation to hydrographic variables in the waters off southern Taiwan were investigated from January 2005 to October 2006. There were 23 species of chaetognaths belonging 4 families and 12 genera recognized in this region. The 4 most dominate species were Flaccisagitta enflata (32.2%), Serratosagitta pacifica (20.6%), Zonosagitta bedfordii (12%) and Pterosagitta draco (8.8%), together comprised about 74% of total chaetognaths. The distribution in abundance of chaetognaths generally decreased from west to east along the transect, and showed clear seasonal change, with the higher abundance occurred from July to October and the lower abundance from January to May. Abundance of chaetognaths increased significantly in July 2006 and positively correlated with the abundance of copepods. Our hydrographic results indicated that South China Sea Current with higher nutrients might dominante over Kuroshio Current in this region from January 2006 to July 2006, and might lead to the increases of phytoplankton (Chl a) and copepods consequently. Furthermore, temperature and salinity also interactively influenced the distribution in abundance and species richness of chaetognaths. Stage I individuals made up the majority of chaetognaths abundance (80%). The breeding period of predominant chaetognaths (F. enflata, S. pacifica, Z. bedfordii and P. draco) are year around. Results from gut content analysis implied that copepods is the main food for chaetognaths in the study area, but the predation impact of chaetognaths on copepods was only about 0.25%¡ã2.47 %.