Lam, Yin Ha. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2010. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 188-203). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / ABSTRACT --- p.i / ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS --- p.vi / CONTENTS --- p.viii / LIST OF TABLES --- p.xi / LIST OF FIGURES --- p.xiv / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Literature Review / Chapter 1.1 --- Crisis in world fisheries --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) --- p.3 / Chapter 1.3 --- Connectivity of fish populations --- p.7 / Chapter 1.4 --- The South China Sea --- p.12 / Chapter 1.5 --- Objectives and significance of the study --- p.14 / Chapter 1.6 --- The target species in the present study --- p.14 / Chapter 1.6.1 --- Family Siganidae --- p.14 / Chapter 1.6.2 --- Difficulties in morphological differentiation in Siganidae --- p.17 / Chapter 1.6.3 --- Systematic studies of Siganidae by molecular method --- p.20 / Chapter 1.6.4 --- Population genetic studies of Siganidae using molecular Marker --- p.24 / Chapter 1.7 --- Structure of the Thesis --- p.26 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- Population structure of Siganus canaliculatus/S. fuscescens species complex in the South China Sea based on mirochondrial DNA control region / Chapter 2.1 --- Introduction --- p.29 / Chapter 2.2 --- Materials and methods --- p.36 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Collection of specimens --- p.36 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- "DNA extraction, PCR amplification and sequencing" --- p.37 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Sequence analysis --- p.39 / Chapter 2.3 --- Results --- p.42 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Genetic diversity --- p.42 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Phylogenetic analysis and population genetic structure --- p.42 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Historical demography --- p.46 / Chapter 2.4 --- Discussion --- p.47 / Chapter 2.4.1 --- Genetic diversity and demographic history --- p.47 / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Phylogeographical patterns --- p.51 / Chapter 2.4.3 --- Phylogeographical patterns and present day oceanic currents --- p.56 / Chapter 2.4.4 --- Population structure: Indian Ocean vs. Pacific Ocean --- p.61 / Chapter 2.4.5 --- Population structures in the South China Sea --- p.64 / Chapter 2.4.6 --- Implication for fisheries management --- p.72 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- Morphological differentiation in Siganus canaliculatus/S. fuscescens species complex / Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.92 / Chapter 3.2 --- Materials and methods --- p.94 / Chapter 3.2.1 --- Collection of specimen --- p.95 / Chapter 3.2.2 --- Morphometric measurements --- p.95 / Chapter 3.2.3 --- Spots counts --- p.96 / Chapter 3.2.4 --- Statistical analysis of data。 --- p.98 / Chapter 3.3 --- Results --- p.100 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Univariate analysis --- p.100 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Multivariate analysis --- p.103 / Chapter 3.4 --- Discussion --- p.106 / Chapter 3.4.1 --- Meristic characters --- p.106 / Chapter 3.4.2 --- Morphometric measurements --- p.107 / Chapter 3.4.2.1 --- Comparison with the previous works --- p.107 / Chapter 3.4.2.2 --- Comparison of morphometric indices among groups and populations --- p.112 / Chapter 3.5 --- Summary --- p.117 / Chapter Chapter 4 --- "The Siganus canaliculatus and S, fuscescens species complex- An evaluation" / Chapter 4.1 --- Introduction --- p.149 / Chapter 4.2 --- Materials and methods --- p.154 / Chapter 4.3 --- Results and discussion --- p.155 / Chapter 4.3.1 --- Meristic and morphometries --- p.156 / Chapter 4.3.2 --- Spots counts --- p.160 / Chapter 4.3.3 --- Cryptic species --- p.165 / Chapter Chapter 5 --- General Conclusions --- p.183 / References --- p.188

This dissertation evaluates the applicability and effectiveness of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) as a settlement mechanism for addressing the South China Sea (SCS) dispute, the most complex and challenging ocean-related regional conflict in East Asia. This dissertation answers these broad questions: Does UNCLOS create a constitution for the ocean? Is UNCLOS successful in preventing or managing conflicts pertaining to marine resources? Hoes does the SCS dispute settlement bridge the gap of International Relations (IR) and International Law (IL)? Since 1980s, the regime concept came to be used as one vehicle to cross the disciplinary divide between IL and IR. This dissertation seeks to foster dialogue between political scientists and international lawyers by viewing UNCLOS as an international regime and exploring its internal coherence and its external relationship with other international regimes and institutions in this region. I argue that there can be little doubt about the centrality of UNCLOS in the legal framework for ocean management, albeit it may be perceived to have certain shortcomings. The most pervasive threats to the SCS stability and obstacles to solve the dispute are caused by the lack of political will to implement the dispute settlement mechanism of UNCLOS. This paper proposes a pragmatic settlement regime of five dimensions to solve the SCS dispute and accelerate ocean governance in this region.

In this study, the sediment cores taken in the northern South China Sea (SCS) as well as the settling particulates collected from time-series sediment traps deployed in the same area have been analyzed for Pb-210 activities in order to estimate the sedimentation rate and mass flux from core data and to obtain temporal variations in mass flux and Pb-210 from the time-series sediment traps. The main purposes are to compare and to discuss the mass balance problem between the sediment trap and core results in terms of mass flux, Pb-210 activity and its fluxes. The time-averaged particulate fluxes measured from different depths at M3S and M1T sites in the northern SCS generally increase with depth, reflecting an increasing effect of the lateral transport. The upper and middle traps display a synchronous trend in mass flux variations. The mean particulate flux at S5 site near Luzon Strait is clearly higher than the two sites mentioned above probably because of the effect of topography and bottom current. Distributions of Pb-210 are influenced by particulate scavenging: the longer the settling particles stay in the water column the more the surrounding Pb-210 will be scavenged. The temporal variations of Pb-210 at M3S show a similar trend and an increase with depth. At M1T site, the temporal variations of Pb-210 show no clear trend due to insufficient samples. It has been commonly observed in the marginal sea that Pb-210 activity is inversely correlated with the associated mass flux, i.e. higher Pb-210 is associated with lower mass flux in terms of their temporal variations. This study is also in line with such observations. The mean water content of the core at I located near the shelf break in the northern SCS is about 28%, and its mean loss on ignition (L.O.I.) is 3.2%. These are similar to those observed previously in the northern SCS (water content: 25-37%; L.O.I.: 3%-8%). The sedimentation rate as determined from the excess Pb-210 profile at core I is 18cm/100yr which is at the lower end of the previous study (16-52 cm/100yr) (Wu, 2006). The sediment flux and sedimentation rate estimated from both the Pb-210 inventory (I) and the upper limit of sedimentation rate are identical, respectively, at 0.32 g/cm2/yr and 18cm/100yr. Thus the mixing effect could be neglected. The Pb-210 flux estimated from the deep sediment trap at 2163m (M3S, 77.4 dpm/m2/d) is much lower than that observed from the core sediment (F, 761.1 dpm/m2/d). Although the specific Pb-210 activity of the particles is much greater than that in the surface sediment, the particle flux is too small relative to the mass flux of the sediment, suggesting that additional sediment with Pb-210 has been transported laterally from elsewhere and deposited here. This results in a large imbalance between the sinking particulates and the underlying sediment in mass flux and Pb-210 flux.

The surface circulation of the northern South China Sea (NSCS) for the period of 1986-2006 is studied using the data of more than 505 satellite-tracked drifters from NOAA/AOML database and the data from ten drifters which were released by our lab in the Penghu channel and in the Luzon Strait in 2006. In this study, the spatial structure and the temporal variability of the surface currents, at mesoscale to seasonal cycle, are described in terms of Eulerian and Lagrangian statistics from the drifter velocities that have been processed. Maps of mean currents, velocity variance ellipses and mean kinetic energies were produced in domain of 0.5¢X¡Ñ0.5¢X. The mean flow map confirms that during the winter monsoon, there is a global cyclonic circulation in the NSCS and the southwestward current which passes Dongsha Island and is called the ¡§Dongsha Current¡¨. Its continuation is the southward coastal jet off Vietnam which is called the ¡§Vietnam Current¡¨. Maximum velocities in the Vietnam Current can exceed 100 cm/s. During the summer monsoon, the Dongsha Current became very weak and the drifters looped near Dongsha Island. The drifter data shows that part of Kuroshio water intrudes into South China Sea through Luzon Strait, Dongsha Current and Vietnam Current were coherent flows. Values of 5.12¡Ñ107 cm2/s, 2.56 days and 64.43 km were obtained for the diffusivity, Lagrangian time scale and spatial scale in the meridional direction in the NSCS, respectively. In the zonal direction, the statistics are half of the above values which show that the characteristic time and space scale are anisotropic. The mean velocity in the Dongsha Current is 0.33 m/s. The domain of Dongsha Current is subdivided into ten boxes of size 2¢X¡Ñ 2¢X in order to analyze the spatial structure of Lagrangian statistics. The result shows that the eddy kinetic energy is considerably higher than the mean kinetic energy in the region 113-121¢XE, indicating that the mesoscale motions are particularly frequent. The eddy kinetic energy gradually decreases toward the west and has a maximum value near the Luzon Strait. The drifters that flow southward along the east coast of Vietnam shows that the width of the Vietnam Current varies between 80 and 100 km and has a mean core speed of 60-150 cm/s. In winter, Maximum southward velocities could reach 130 cm/s at 38 km off the coast. In spring, a weaker maximum speed (around 100 cm/s) exists at about 18 km off the Vietnam coast. There were not enough drifter data in summer and fall.

Satellite-tracked surface drifter data from 1986 to 2008 acquired from NOAA/AOML and the sea-level anomaly (SLA) data of AVISO from 1992-2008 were used in this study to investigate the mesoscale anticyclonic eddies in the northern South China Sea (SCS) and Luzon Strait. A comparison of the concurrent drifter trajectories and SLA for two eddy events (2003/12~2004/02 and 2004/11~2005/01) indicates good agreement between the two datasets. From historical SLA data (1992-2008) it is found that 78 anticyclonic eddies can be identified in the studied region. The number of occurrence is highest in 1994, 1996, 2001 and 2004, and is lowest in 1998. This result is likely due to the ENSO event and the associated wind lessening in the SCS. Most eddies were generated off southwestern Taiwan coast, northern SCS and west of Luzon Strait. During northeastern monsoon the average life time of eddies is 66.88 days, and the average sea level height difference is 10-20 cm, occasionally reached a maximum value of over 30 cm. During southwestern monsoon eddies have an average lifetime of 51.43 days, and the average sea level height difference is mostly less than 15 cm. In particular, eddies off the southwestern Taiwan coast have the characteristics of lower sea level height difference and translational speed. Location of eddy generation has a marked seasonal variation. During northeastern monsoon, most eddies were concentrated in northern Luzon Strait, propagating longer distance toward the west along the continental shelf, even reaching 112¢XE. On the other hand, eddies generated during the southwestern monsoon can only reach 118¢XE. Statistical results indicate a linear relationship exists between the sea level height difference and the life time for eddies, implying that stronger eddies are more long-lived. Finally, from drifter tracks it can be found that as Kuroshio penetrates through the Luzon Strait and forms a loop current off the southwestern Taiwan coast. Subsequently, eddies could often be identified from the SLA data. Therefore, it can be conjectured that in the northern SCS anticyclone are often shed from the Luzon Strait by Kuroshio penetration.

Abstract South China Sea depute is a complex issue in the world, because it involves the island's sovereignty, rich nature resources and strategic advantage in this area. The states which involve in South China Sea dispute are Taiwan, China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei as well as the United States and Japan. Why South China Sea depute is so complex? in addition to the strategic location, it¡¦s also the major shipping channel in the world. But the key reason is the potential wealth of oil and gas just be discovered, the neighbor countries started to covet the nature resource, and lead to competition for the sovereignty of South China Sea. Furthermore, 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, also produced another trend of maritime delimitation in this area. China believes that the sovereignty of the South China Sea belongs to it, based on historical or legal status. China shows its ambition and intention toward claiming sovereignty in the South China Sea because of its strategic needs, demands for resources needed for economic growth and development, that¡¦s why China is so persistence in reinforcing its sovereignty. China¡¦s current national consensus on the South China Sea is "shelving the disputes and seeking for common development". Sovereignty over the South China Sea is to shelve the case, in order to develop peaceful negotiations. But in the process of negotiation, some countries demonstrate the attitude of willingness to negotiate; and others are continuing to build military facilities in the South China Sea islands. This study is mainly focus on policy research for the South China Sea, and expects for experts and author himself giving us the following answers: First, we have to notice the Chinese sea interests, and observe how China deals with the South China Sea policy. Second, what are the views of the U.S. and Japan on the disputes. Third, this study will suggest How Taiwan can use China¡¦s strategy on South China sea to gain its national interest. Key words¡G South China Sea, Sovereignty dispute, National interests, Joint development

Sea surface temperature (SST) is an important oceanic parameter which can be accessed easily and vastly by satellite remote sensing. Recent hydrographic observations suggested that the water temperature near Dongsha Atoll were affected by internal waves of South China Sea (SCS). This study hypothesizes that the SST variations near Dongsha Atoll and continental shelf cab be observed by satellite data. To test the hypothesis, MODIS SST data during January 2005 to December 2009 were collected and analyzed using harmonic and EOF analyses. The results show that there can be a 1 ¢XC temperature drop, near Dongsha Atoll during the passage of internal waves, based on a longitudinal section cut for a typical SST image. The SST patterns in northern SCS are distributed lower in the east and higher in the west. The temperature showed an average of 0.5¢XC lower near Dongsha Atoll. Especially, the pattern of lower temperature near Dongsha is significant during neap tide in summer season. EOF analysis showed that the spatial distribution of SST aligned well with the bottom topography of the continental shelf. This result suggests that internal tide may be important to the vertical mixing in this region. The total variation of mode 1 in EOF accounted for 97.7% and is dominated by seasonal changes. For the long term and large area SST statistics, the internal wave induced variation is insignificant, as comparing the Dongsha region with shelf region and Kuroshio region.

Numerous isolated carbonate platforms developed in the Central Luconia Province of offshore Sarawak (during Middle to Late Miocene time). Fault-bounded highs produced largely by extensional deformation and later overprinted by strike-slip deformation provided substrates for the platforms and affected their growth histories. Flooding of these structural highs at ~16.5 Ma initiated carbonate sedimentation nearly simultaneously across the area. Later, third-order sea-level fluctuations and extrinsic factors such as differential subsidence, paleowind patterns and siliciclastic influx then controlled the internal architecture of the platforms. 2-D regional seismic lines, publicdomain data and published literature were used to analyze growth patterns and demise of carbonate platforms across the study area. Five Growth Stages were recognized in the carbonate platforms based on seismic facies analysis and stratigraphic relationships between reflectors. Platforms from the southeastern part of Central Luconia are thicker and larger than platforms located toward the central and northwestern areas, which reflect greater long-term tectonic subsidence to the southeast. Additionally, northwestward prograding siliciclastic sediments from mainland Borneo caused additional flexural subsidence in the eastern part of the area and environmental deterioration for platforms located beyond the range of active siliciclastic sedimentation. Both of these factors reduced the growth potential of platforms and thus subdued carbonate development. Platform termination was regionally diachronous and was produced in two steps. The first platforms drowned (~12.5-9.7 Ma) were in the eastern parts of the study area which were affected by incoming siliciclastic sediments and high local subsidence. Platforms drowned later (~6.3-5.5 Ma) were caused by a rapid sea-level rise combined with an intense local subsidence. Carbonate accumulation rates were measured between intraplatform markers, resulting in a trend that indicates a decrease in sedimentation rate with the square root of time. Comparisons between Central Luconia carbonates and age-equivalent carbonate platforms elsewhere in East Natuna Basin showed that Central Luconia carbonate platforms were drowned earlier (latest late Miocene time) than East Natuna carbonate platforms (Early Pliocene time).

ABSTRACT This thesis was to develop a simplified technique for the analysis of 210Pb in sediment samples with gamma spectrometry. Compared with the results of the conventional beta method, we found that the gamma method yields values that are 1.5 times higher. This discrepancy awaits further investigation. However, the results determined on two sediment-trap samples and a 210Pb source by the gamma technique agree within 10 % to those determined by the same method at the Institute of Earth Sciences, Academia Sinica. Also, using the manganese-impregnated fiber extraction technique, the distributions of 228Ra and 226Ra in surface waters around Taiwan and in the northern South China Sea¡]SCS¡^ were measured by a high-purity germanium¡]HPGe¡^ detector coupled with gamma spectrometry. The distribution of 228Ra in the surface sea water off eastern Taiwan was controlled by its source function, horizontal mixing and dilution of the Kuroshio. It was higher in coastal or estuarine areas but much lower farther away from the coast line. The 228Ra/226Ra activity ratio¡]AR¡^ varied in the same trend. Estuaries and coastal zones in eastern Taiwan were probably the main source for 228Ra in the adjacent sea. Concentrations of 226Ra on transect LY, CC and PN were almost constant. The AR values along the transect CC were lower than unity, because there was no estuarine input and it was entirely occupied by the Kuroshio water. The concentration of 228Ra along this transect was about 30 % higher in summer than in spring, probably because 228Ra was preferentially released from the coastal sediments by typhoon Nichole. Applying a steady-state one-dimensional diffusion model to the LY and PN lines extending from the estuarine coastal areas, we estimated a horizontal eddy diffusion coefficient of about 1.3 ¡Ñ 105 cm2/s for the sea off eastern Taiwan. This value is comparable to that of the Japan Sea determined by Nozaki et al.¡]1989¡^. Taiwan Strait¡]TS¡^ is mainly continental shelf with water depth less than 50 m on the average. Ra isotopes in the surface water were probably supplied by diffusion from the bottom sediments; their distributions were affected by currents and tides, and so no clear trend could be recognized when sampling was conducted in different times. 228Ra was seen inversely correlated with salinity, showing effect of the fresh water. Concentrations of 228Ra and 226Ra along the transect CS decreased away from the estuary during the spring. The 228Ra values along the TS transect in the same season increased toward the northwest, suggesting a possible source from the coastal zone of the mainland. Distribution of 228Ra in the northern SCS was determined consecutively in 2000 and 2001. The 228Ra activities in the northern continental shelf and northwestern Luzon were higher than in the central region during the spring season. The NE monsoon prevails in fall and winter causing the longshore current to transport the shelf water of high 228Ra to the central region. The 228Ra activities of surface water decreased southward and so the central region away from land had low 228Ra values. The low 228Ra concentration observed at the sea off southern Taiwan was probably due to dilution by the Kuroshio. Based on the 228Ra distribution along a transect roughly perpendicular to the 200m bathymetric contour, we calculated a horizontal eddy diffusion coefficient, Kh of about 6.2 ¡Ñ 106 cm2/s, a value lower than that estimated by Huang et al.¡]1996¡^in the Nansha sea area. Compared to the Kh values estimated for the northwest Pacific by Yamada and Nozaki¡]1986¡^, this value falls in between those within and without 200 km away from land in the Kuroshio region.

With regard to the concerns on the role of oceanic uptake of the increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration, a total of eight ocean time-series programs, have been established worldwide since the JGOFS era (i.e. late 1980s). Among these, the Southeast Asia Time-series Study (SEATS) site is the only one located in a ¡§subtropical marginal sea¡¨, namely the South China Sea (SCS). TA, TCO2,