Este estudo apresenta uma tentativa para investigação do efeito que a sensibilidade à taxa de deformação do material poderia provocar no modo de falha do ponto de solda. É sabido que alguns materiais quando deformados dinamicamente sofrem elevação na sua resistência mecânica, e portanto este aumento poderia afetar o comportamento, ou seja, o modo de falha da junta. Os modos de falha esperados neste estudo são o de cisalhamento do ponto na interface ou o arrancamento do ponto na região da zona termicamente afetada. Uma formulação analítica para as tensões atuantes devido à solicitação dinâmica no ponto foi proposta com base em estudos existente para juntas solicitadas estaticamente. Propôs-se uma forma de quantificar a taxa de deformação, que foi incorporada à formulação da tensão dinâmica atuante na região da junta. Em conjunto à formulação analítica, um modelo de elementos finitos foi desenvolvido e diversas condições de carregamento e geometrias foram analisadas e posteriormente comparadas com os resultados analíticos. Como resultado principal verificou-se que, para a estimativa adotada para a taxa de deformação de material, o modo de falha da junta não se altera quando comparado com o modo de falha presente na junta solicitada a carregamento estático. E que para as formulações estimadas e modelos investigados a falha teria uma tendência a ocorrer na região da zona termicamente afetada para qualquer dos casos de carregamento analisados. / This study presents an attempt to probe the effect that some materials strain rate sensitivity could set in the failure mode of the spot weld joint. It is well known that some materials when dynamically loaded and deformed have its mechanical strength increased and therefore this strength increase could affect the joint failure behavior. The failure modes taken in account in this study are the shear of the spot weld in the interface region and the pull-out of the spot weld in the heat affected zone. An analytical formulation to the acting stress in the spot weld region owing to the dynamic loading has been proposed based on studies performed to the statically loaded spot weld joint. Moreover, an analytical formulation has been proposed to quantify the strain rate, and it has been incorporated in the dynamic stress formulation. A finite element model has been also built. Several geometrical configurations of this model have been analyzed under several velocity loading conditions, and their results have been compared with the analytical considerations. As the main result, it has been verified, to the estimated strain rate formulation, the failure mode in the dynamic loading condition has not effectively changed in comparison with the statically loaded joint failure. And according to the formulation considered and the finite elements models results the failure would tend to happen in the heat affected zone to any of the loading cases taken in account in this study.

A soldagem a ponto por resistência é o processo de união de partes mais comum utilizado na indústria automobilística. Vários métodos de representação de pontos de solda estão disponíveis, e este trabalho se propõe comparar dois métodos de modelagem de pontos de solda através de um estudo de correlação, em termos da força máxima suportada pela junta soldada, entre os resultados de testes virtuais e de laboratório. Estes métodos de representação dos pontos de solda são os elementos de viga e os elementos sólidos. Os testes utilizados neste estudo de correlação carregam o corpo de provas sob ação de forças de cisalhamento e normal aplicadas diretamente no ponto de solda. E para completar este estudo de correlação, o entendimento dos modos e critérios de falha de juntas soldadas também é necessário. Os modelos de elementos finitos dos corpos de prova gerados para serem testados sob condições de cisalhamento e de força normal são detalhados pela apresentação dos tipos de materiais, elementos, formulações de contato e carregamento utilizados. Estes modelos foram analisados pelo LS-DYNA, que é um código de elementos finitos de propósito geral para análise de respostas dinâmicas provenientes de grandes deformações de estruturas. Da mesma forma, os testes físicos e os corpos de prova utilizados são detalhados, e os resultados provenientes dos testes são comparados aos obtidos nas simulações. Dos resultados obtidos, a melhor correlação se deu com a utilização do elemento sólido para representar o ponto de solda, com diferenças entre os resultados físicos e virtuais em torno de 4%. Uma representação simples do ponto de solda é indicada no caso de modelos completos e para aplicações na indústria, alguns fatores, tais como a modelagem da ZTA, podem ser suprimidos. Uma breve descrição do processo de soldagem a ponto, alguns tópicos da análise de elementos finitos não-linear e algumas características do LS-DYNA, além das conclusões e recomendações para trabalhos posteriores, completam este estudo. / Resistance spot welding is the most common jointing process of parts used in automotive industry. Several methods to represent spot welds are available, and the purpose of this work is to compare two different methods of spot weld modeling through a correlation study, taking into consideration the maximum force withstood by the welded joint, between virtual and lab test results. These spot weld representation methods are beam and solid elements. The tests used in this correlation study load the specimens under pure shear and pure normal forces. And in order to complete this correlation study, the understanding of the failure modes and criteria is also necessary. The specimens finite element models generated to be tested under purê shear and normal conditions are detailed by the presentation of materials, elements contact formulations and loading types used. These models were analyzed by the LS-DYNA, which is general purpose finite element code for analyzing the large deformation dynamic response of structures. As well, the physical tests and used specimens are detailed, and the results from the tests are compared to the results obtained in the simulations. Taking the obtained results, the best correlation was found using solid elements to represent the spot weld, due to differences between the physical and the virtual results about 4%. A simple representation of the spot weld is indicated in case of a complete model, and for the industry application, some factors such as the HAZ, may be suppressed. A brief description of the spot welding process, some topics of the non-liner finite element analysis and some features of the LS-DYNA, and also the conclusions and recommendations for future works, complete this study.

Este estudo apresenta uma tentativa para investigação do efeito que a sensibilidade à taxa de deformação do material poderia provocar no modo de falha do ponto de solda. É sabido que alguns materiais quando deformados dinamicamente sofrem elevação na sua resistência mecânica, e portanto este aumento poderia afetar o comportamento, ou seja, o modo de falha da junta. Os modos de falha esperados neste estudo são o de cisalhamento do ponto na interface ou o arrancamento do ponto na região da zona termicamente afetada. Uma formulação analítica para as tensões atuantes devido à solicitação dinâmica no ponto foi proposta com base em estudos existente para juntas solicitadas estaticamente. Propôs-se uma forma de quantificar a taxa de deformação, que foi incorporada à formulação da tensão dinâmica atuante na região da junta. Em conjunto à formulação analítica, um modelo de elementos finitos foi desenvolvido e diversas condições de carregamento e geometrias foram analisadas e posteriormente comparadas com os resultados analíticos. Como resultado principal verificou-se que, para a estimativa adotada para a taxa de deformação de material, o modo de falha da junta não se altera quando comparado com o modo de falha presente na junta solicitada a carregamento estático. E que para as formulações estimadas e modelos investigados a falha teria uma tendência a ocorrer na região da zona termicamente afetada para qualquer dos casos de carregamento analisados. / This study presents an attempt to probe the effect that some materials strain rate sensitivity could set in the failure mode of the spot weld joint. It is well known that some materials when dynamically loaded and deformed have its mechanical strength increased and therefore this strength increase could affect the joint failure behavior. The failure modes taken in account in this study are the shear of the spot weld in the interface region and the pull-out of the spot weld in the heat affected zone. An analytical formulation to the acting stress in the spot weld region owing to the dynamic loading has been proposed based on studies performed to the statically loaded spot weld joint. Moreover, an analytical formulation has been proposed to quantify the strain rate, and it has been incorporated in the dynamic stress formulation. A finite element model has been also built. Several geometrical configurations of this model have been analyzed under several velocity loading conditions, and their results have been compared with the analytical considerations. As the main result, it has been verified, to the estimated strain rate formulation, the failure mode in the dynamic loading condition has not effectively changed in comparison with the statically loaded joint failure. And according to the formulation considered and the finite elements models results the failure would tend to happen in the heat affected zone to any of the loading cases taken in account in this study.

A soldagem a ponto por resistência é o processo de união de partes mais comum utilizado na indústria automobilística. Vários métodos de representação de pontos de solda estão disponíveis, e este trabalho se propõe comparar dois métodos de modelagem de pontos de solda através de um estudo de correlação, em termos da força máxima suportada pela junta soldada, entre os resultados de testes virtuais e de laboratório. Estes métodos de representação dos pontos de solda são os elementos de viga e os elementos sólidos. Os testes utilizados neste estudo de correlação carregam o corpo de provas sob ação de forças de cisalhamento e normal aplicadas diretamente no ponto de solda. E para completar este estudo de correlação, o entendimento dos modos e critérios de falha de juntas soldadas também é necessário. Os modelos de elementos finitos dos corpos de prova gerados para serem testados sob condições de cisalhamento e de força normal são detalhados pela apresentação dos tipos de materiais, elementos, formulações de contato e carregamento utilizados. Estes modelos foram analisados pelo LS-DYNA, que é um código de elementos finitos de propósito geral para análise de respostas dinâmicas provenientes de grandes deformações de estruturas. Da mesma forma, os testes físicos e os corpos de prova utilizados são detalhados, e os resultados provenientes dos testes são comparados aos obtidos nas simulações. Dos resultados obtidos, a melhor correlação se deu com a utilização do elemento sólido para representar o ponto de solda, com diferenças entre os resultados físicos e virtuais em torno de 4%. Uma representação simples do ponto de solda é indicada no caso de modelos completos e para aplicações na indústria, alguns fatores, tais como a modelagem da ZTA, podem ser suprimidos. Uma breve descrição do processo de soldagem a ponto, alguns tópicos da análise de elementos finitos não-linear e algumas características do LS-DYNA, além das conclusões e recomendações para trabalhos posteriores, completam este estudo. / Resistance spot welding is the most common jointing process of parts used in automotive industry. Several methods to represent spot welds are available, and the purpose of this work is to compare two different methods of spot weld modeling through a correlation study, taking into consideration the maximum force withstood by the welded joint, between virtual and lab test results. These spot weld representation methods are beam and solid elements. The tests used in this correlation study load the specimens under pure shear and pure normal forces. And in order to complete this correlation study, the understanding of the failure modes and criteria is also necessary. The specimens finite element models generated to be tested under purê shear and normal conditions are detailed by the presentation of materials, elements contact formulations and loading types used. These models were analyzed by the LS-DYNA, which is general purpose finite element code for analyzing the large deformation dynamic response of structures. As well, the physical tests and used specimens are detailed, and the results from the tests are compared to the results obtained in the simulations. Taking the obtained results, the best correlation was found using solid elements to represent the spot weld, due to differences between the physical and the virtual results about 4%. A simple representation of the spot weld is indicated in case of a complete model, and for the industry application, some factors such as the HAZ, may be suppressed. A brief description of the spot welding process, some topics of the non-liner finite element analysis and some features of the LS-DYNA, and also the conclusions and recommendations for future works, complete this study.

The objective of this thesis is to determine if the single sided resistance spot weld (RSW) can be used as a feasible connection method for cold formed steel (CFS) shear walls subject to lateral force of either seismic or wind loads on mobile shelters. The research consisted of three phases which include: a design as a 3D BIM model, connection tests of the resistance spot weld, and full-scale testing of the designed solid wall panels. The shear wall testing was conducted on specimens with both resistance spot weld and self-drilling screws and the results from tests gave a direct comparison of these connections when the solid wall panel was subjected to in-plane shear forces. The full-scale tests also included 4-point bending tests which was designed to investigate the wall panel's resistance to the lateral loads applied perpendicularly to the surface. The research discovered that the singled sided resistance spot weld achieved similar performance as the self-drilling screws in the applications of CFS wall panels for mobile shelters. The proposed single sided resistance spot weld has advantages of low cost, no added weight, fast fabrication, and it is a feasible connection method for CFS wall panels.

Spot welding of 1.4307 material of 1+1 mm thickness is tuned out excellently by the enterprise ROSTEX – at the changes only of the welding current it was managed to approach the value of thickness achieved by enterprise ROSTEX. At the welding of 1.4307 material of 2+2 mm thickness it was managed to achieve more strength under welding parameters: Fs = 5500N, Is = 8,964 kA, ts = 10 Per. Spot welding of 1.0330 material revealed a possibility in proceeding with welding current increasing which could stand for the weld strength increasing (not necessarily) – a limit where material could splash was not achieved. The soft mode welding is not convenient for up-to date spot welding because the material is extremely affected by heat at the long welding time, it also leads to huge thermal losses, thermal effect and distortion of electrodes (electrodes life diminishing). Soft mode welding is not expedient even economically. In accordance with economic comparison, see chart 27, page 64 – for instance welding of 1.4307 material with 1+1 mm thickness at 1000 welds there is difference of 644 Czech crowns between the hard and the soft mode welding in benefit to the hard mode.

Spot friction welding (SFW) was performed on ultra high strength steel (UHSS) steel sheet commonly used in automobile manufacturing. Alloys studied included DP780, DP780EG, DP980, and DF140T sheet steel of varying thickness from 1.2 mm to 1.4 mm. Welding was accomplished using a PCBN standard tool. Weld strengths were then compared to a proposed AWS standard. Initial hardness readings were taken in cross sectioned samples. Grain structure in a SFW is presented. Resistance spot welds were created in three steels. This study focuses on the strength of SFW joints as compared to traditional resistance spot welding (RSW) in welding like materials to one another. Cycle times of SFW were also evaluated and compared to production rate cycle times of RSW.

Multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO) can be used in computer aided engineering (CAE) to efficiently improve and balance performance of automotive structures. However, large-scale MDO is not yet generally integrated within automotive product development due to several challenges, of which excessive computing times is the most important one. In this thesis, a metamodel-based MDO process that fits normal company organizations and CAE-based development processes is presented. The introduction of global metamodels offers means to increase computational efficiency and distribute work without implementing complicated multi-level MDO methods. The presented MDO process is proven to be efficient for thickness optimization studies with the objective to minimize mass. It can also be used for spot weld optimization if the models are prepared correctly. A comparison of different methods reveals that topology optimization, which requires less model preparation and computational effort, is an alternative if load cases involving simulations of linear systems are judged to be of major importance. A technical challenge when performing metamodel-based design optimization is lack of accuracy for metamodels representing complex responses including discontinuities, which are common in for example crashworthiness applications. The decision boundary from a support vector machine (SVM) can be used to identify the border between different types of deformation behaviour. In this thesis, this information is used to improve the accuracy of feedforward neural network metamodels. Three different approaches are tested; to split the design space and fit separate metamodels for the different regions, to add estimated guiding samples to the fitting set along the boundary before a global metamodel is fitted, and to use a special SVM-based sequential sampling method. Substantial improvements in accuracy are observed, and it is found that implementing SVM-based sequential sampling and estimated guiding samples can result in successful optimization studies for cases where more conventional methods fail.

Une caisse automobile est un ensemble complexe formé de plusieurs éléments qui sont souvent constitués de matériaux différents et assemblés principalement par points soudés, généralement à plus de 80%. Au stade de la conception, plusieurs critères doivent être vérifiés numériquement et confirmés expérimentalement par le prototype de la caisse, dont sa tenue en endurance. Dans le contexte économique actuel, la politique de réduction des dépenses énergétiques ou autres a conduit les constructeurs automobiles à optimiser les performances des véhicules actuels, en particulier en réduisant de façon très conséquente la masse de leur caisse. Des problèmes liés à la tenue structurelle ou à la tenue en fatigue de la caisse sont alors apparus. Afin d'être validé, le prototype de caisse doit avoir une résistance suffisante pour supporter les essais de fatigue. Les tests de validation sur bancs d'essais réalisés en amont sur un prototype sont très coûteux pour l'industriel, en particulier lorsque les tests d'essais en fatigue sur la caisse ne permettent pas de confirmer les zones d'apparition des fissures identifiées par simulations numériques. Le sujet de la thèse se limitera à ce dernier point. Il porte sur l'ensemble des analyses à mettre en oeuvre afin d'étudier la tenue en endurance de caisses automobiles soumises à des profils de mission sévérisés. L'objectif principal est de mettre au point un processus d'analyse en simulation numérique permettant de garantir un bon niveau de prédictivité de tenue en endurance des caisses automobiles. On entend par bon niveau de prédictivité, le fait d'être en mesure de corréler correctement les résultats d'essais associés aux profils de missions sévérisés classiquement utilisés dans les plans de validation de la caisse. Cette thèse a conduit à :_ analyser le comportement mécanique de la caisse et les forces d'excitations appliquées au cours de l'essai de validation,_ établir une nouvelle méthode de réduction d'un chargement pour les calculs en endurance,_ mettre au point une nouvelle modélisation EF des liaisons soudées par points,_ améliorer les modèles de prédiction de durée de vie des PSR. Les études menées ont ainsi permis d'améliorer le niveau de prédiction des calculs en fatigue de la caisse afin :_ d'identifier la majorité des zones réellement critiques sur la caisse,_ d'évaluer de manière fiable de la criticité relative de chacune de ces zones,_ d'estimer de façon pertinente la durée de vie associée à chacune de ces zones / A body-in-white (biw) is a complex structure which consists of several elements that are made of different materials and assembled mainly by spot welds, generally above 80%. At the design stage, several criteria must be verified numerically and experimentally by the car prototype, as the biw durability. In the current economic context, the policy of reducing energy and other costs led automotive companies to optimize the vehicle performances, in particular by reducing very consistently the mass of the biw. As a consequences, some structural design problems appeared. In order to be validated, validation test benches are carried out upstream on a prototype vehicle. They are very costly to the manufacturer, especially when fatigue tests do not confirm the cracks areas identified by numerical simulations. The thesis is focused on numerical biw durability analysis. It covers all the numerical analysis to be implemented to study the biw durability behavior. The main objective is to develop a numerical simulation process to ensure a good level of durability prediction. It means to be able to have a good correlation level between test bench results and numerical fatigue life prediction. This thesis has led to:_ analyze the biw mechanical behavior and the excitation forces applied to the biw during the validation tests,_ establish a new fatigue data editing technique to simplify load signal,_ create a new finite element spot weld model,_ develop a new fatigue life prediction of spot welds. The studies have thus improved the level of biw fatigue life prediction by:_ identifying the majority of critical areas on the full biw,_ reliably assessing the relative criticality of each area,_ accurately estimating the lifetime associated with each of these areas

A Lagrangian finite-element model of the plunge phase of the friction stir welding process was developed to better understand the plunge. The effects of both modeling and experimental parameters were explored. Experimental friction stir plunges were made in AA 7075-T6 at a plunge rate of 0.724 mm/s with spindle speeds ranging from 400 to 800 rpm. Comparable plunges were modeled in Forge2005. Various simulation parameters were explored to assess the effect on temperature prediction. These included the heat transfer coefficient between the tool and workpiece (from 0 to 2000 W/m-K), mesh size (node counts from 1,200 to 8,000), and material model (five different constitutive relationships). Simulated and measured workpiece temperatures were compared to evaluate model quality. As spindle speed increases, there is a statistically significant increase in measured temperature. However, over the range of spindle speeds studied, this difference is only about 10% of the measured temperature increase. Both the model and the simulation show a similar influence of spindle speed on temperature. The tool-workpiece heat transfer coefficient has a minor influence (<25% temperature change) on simulated peak temperature. Mesh size has a moderate influence (<40% temperature change) on simulated peak temperature, but a mesh size of 3000 nodes is sufficient. The material model has a high influence (>60% temperature change) on simulated peak temperature. Overall, the simulated temperature rise error was reduced from 300% to 50%. It is believed that this can be best improved in the future by developing improved material models.