Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is an essential component in a white paint formulation due to its excellent light scattering ability. TiO2 also happens to make up most of the raw materials cost. Viable replacements to TiO2 do not currently exist in a feasible manner. Rising costs in the recent TiO2 supply shortage have forced coatings formulators to find a balance between cost and performance. One method includes partial substitution of TiO2 with cheaper material such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which serves to occupy volume. The purpose of this study was to compare the coating spread rate of paints with varying TiO2 and CaCO3 pigment volume concentration (PVC). Different sized CaCO3 particles were used in this study. A series of PVC ladder studies were performed at keeping CaCO3 PVC constant. Paints were formulated at the same volume solids to minimize variability. Weighed coating draw-downs were prepared to measure the contrast ratio. The coating spread rates were obtained with the DuPont Spread Rate program, which relies on Kubelka-Munk relationships, which takes into account the physical properties of the paint. These spread rate values were compared to one another across type and size to find common trends. Critical pigment volume concentration (CPVC) values were determined through regression of the spread rate values and compared to oil absorption tests. It was found that replacement of up to 20 PVC of TiO2 with CaCO3 could marginally increase the spread rate, thus increasing the efficiency of TiO2. The spread rate increased modestly as similarly sized extender particles were initially introduced, then dropped at higher extender levels. Data analysis revealed that CPVC was influenced based on the size and amount of the extender particle present, which can be used to predict resin demand of a paint system.

Invasive species drive ecosystem changes throughout the world. Introduced grasses in dryland ecosystems have driven a grass-fire cycle that transforms ecosystems into homogenized grasslands (Brooks et al. 2004; D'Antonio & Vitousek 1992). Little is known about the spread rates of these grasses, effects on native ecosystems or how climate modulates spread, yet these uncertainties may be the difference between success and failure. Equally important is a quantitative assessment of the current states of invasion, yet mapping efforts have been lacking and remote sensing assessments have been inadequate for regional and local assessments. This research examines these uncertainties in the context of buffelgrass (Pennisetum ciliare Link (L.)), a C₄ grass introduced into the Sonoran Desert. These are presented as three distinct but related studies. The first study documents changes in diversity and dominance at 11 sites in the Sonoran Desert with respect to time since infestation by buffelgrass. Dominant and rare species alike declined rapidly following infestation, although the longer-lived shrubs showed no signs until after five years. This calls into question basic assumptions about the grass-fire cycle. The second study assesses constraints to successful operational identification of buffelgrass via remote sensing. We combined ground-based spectral measurements with cover estimates and found that Landsat TM-based classification will result in high commission/omission errors regardless of timing. We also identified several spectral characteristics that distinguish buffelgrass that are only available using hyperspectral imagery. The third study reconstructs spread of buffelgrass using historical aerial photography dating from 1979. Populations grew from small colonizing patches to 66 ha in 2008, doubling every 2-3 years since 1988. Although spread closely fit a logistic growth curve between 1989 and 2008, we found evidence that the 1980s were a period of rapid expansion. Thus, we may presently be in a period of slower spread in which treatment efforts will be more effective than the long-term average. This research documents grass-led ecosystem transformation without changes in the fire regime and constant spread rates over multiple decades. Along with suggested methods derived from our remote sensing study, this provides managers with critical information for managing buffelgrass in the long-term.

The potential for oil exploration on the Arctic Outer Continental Shelf warrants determination of an efficient method to clean up an oil spill. Traditional spill response equipment may not be practical in an Arctic environment; the presence of ice which may prevent proper deployment of equipment. The remoteness of the areas proposed for oil exploration lack the infrastructure and support networks necessary to stage a response to a large oil spill. These difficulties make it necessary to explore alternative means of oil spill cleanup. In situ burning is one method that may be particularly well-suited for arctic and sub-arctic environments due to the minimal amount of equipment required to achieve an efficient burn, i.e. high mass loss. The Arctic and sub- Arctic environments add an additional level of complexity by introducing a spill medium (ice) that is highly unstable at elevated temperatures. Our experiments sought to calculate the mass loss rate of oil mixtures to determine the efficiency with which they burn within ice channels of varying widths. Since fuel layer thickness is a critical factor in determining the effectiveness of an in situ burn the spread rate of oil along an ice channel was studied. Burning of oil in an ice channel yields low efficiencies (10%) primarily due to the geometric changes of the melting ice channel. The spreading was modeled as a constant flux rectilinear buoyancy-inertia governed flow. The melting causes an increase in the surface area and results in the critical thickness of the oil to be reached sooner. Based on the current bench- scale testing, losses due to ice melting cause the efficiencies of the burning process to be excessively low and not viable to full scale clean up. The results warrant future research to understand how varying other parameters, including starting mass of fuel, influence efficiencies.

Flexible polyurethane foam (PUF) is a very versatile material ever created. The material is used for various applications and consumer end-use products such as upholstered furniture and mattresses. The increased use of these polymeric materials causes fire safety concerns. This has led to the development of various regulations and flammability test standards aimed at addressing the hazards associated with polyurethane foam fires. Several fire protection engineering correlations and thermal models have also been developed for the simulation of fire growth behaviour of polyurethane foams. Thus, the overall objective of this research project is to investigate the laboratory test behaviour of this material and then use finer modeling techniques to predict the heat release rate of the specimens, based on information obtained from cone calorimeter tests.<p> Full-scale fire tests of 10 cm thick polyurethane foams of different sizes were conducted using center and edge-ignition locations. Flame spread and heat release rates were compared. For specimens of the same size, center-ignition tests produced flame areas and peak heat release rates which were respectively 10 and 20% larger compared to edge-ignition tests. Average flame spread rates for horizontal and vertical spread were determined, and results showed excellent agreement with literature. Cone calorimeter tests of the specimens were performed using steel edge frame and open durarock board. Results indicate that different test arrangements and heat sources have significant effects on the fire behaviour of the specimens.<p> Predictions using the integral convolution model and other fire protection engineering correlations were compared with the full-scale tests results. Results show that the model was more efficient in predicting the heat release rates for edge-ignition tests than the center-ignition tests. The model also was more successful in predicting the heat release rates during the early part of the growth phase than during the later stages of the fire. The predicted and measured peak heat release rates and total heat release were within 10-15% of one another. Flame spread and t-squared fire models also gave satisfactory predictions of the full-scale fire behaviour of the specimens.

This thesis documents the design and fabrication of an experimental facility that was built to produce a turbulent plane wall jet. The target flow was two-dimensional with a uniform profile of the mean streamwise velocity and a low turbulence level at the slot exit. The design requirements for a flow conditioning apparatus that could produce this flow were determined. The apparatus was then designed and constructed, and measurements of the fluid flow were obtained using particle image velocimetry (PIV). The first series of measurements was along the slot width, the second series was along the slot centerline and the third was at 46 slot heights off the centerline. The Reynolds number, based on the slot height and jet exit velocity, of the wall jet varied from 7594 to 8121. Data for the streamwise and transverse components of velocity and the three associated Reynolds stress components were analyzed and used to determine the characteristics of the wall jet.<p> This experimental facility was able to produce a profile of the mean streamwise velocity near the slot exit that was uniform over 71% of the slot height with a streamwise turbulence that was equal to 1.45% of the mean velocity. This initial velocity was maintained to 6 slot heights. The fully developed region for the centerline and the off-centerline measurements was determined to extend from 50 to 100 slot heights and 40 to 100 slot heights, respectively. This was based on self-similarity of the mean streamwise velocity profiles when scaled using the maximum streamwise velocity and the jet half-width. The off-centerline Reynolds stress profiles achieved a greater degree of collapse than did the centerline profiles.<p> The rate of spread of the wall jet along the centerline was 0.080 in the self-similar region from 50 to 100 slot heights, and the off-centerline growth rate was 0.077 in the self-similar region from 40 to 100 slot heights. The decay rate of the maximum streamwise velocity was -0.624 within the centerline self-similar region, and -0.562 within the off-centerline self-similar region. These results for the spread and decay of the wall jet compared well with recent similar studies.<p> The two-dimensionality was initially assessed by measuring the mean streamwise velocity at 1 slot height along the entire slot width. The two-dimensionality of this wall jet was further analyzed by comparing the centerline and off-centerline profiles of the mean streamwise velocity at 2/3, 4, 50, 80, and 100 slot heights, and by comparing the growth rates and decay rates. Although this facility was able to produce a wall jet that was initially two-dimensional, the two-dimensionality was compromised downstream of the slot, most likely due to the presence of return flow and spanwise spreading. Without further measurements, it is not yet clear exactly how the lack of complete two-dimensionality affects the flow characteristics noted above.

Flexible polyurethane foam (PUF) is a very versatile material ever created. The material is used for various applications and consumer end-use products such as upholstered furniture and mattresses. The increased use of these polymeric materials causes fire safety concerns. This has led to the development of various regulations and flammability test standards aimed at addressing the hazards associated with polyurethane foam fires. Several fire protection engineering correlations and thermal models have also been developed for the simulation of fire growth behaviour of polyurethane foams. Thus, the overall objective of this research project is to investigate the laboratory test behaviour of this material and then use finer modeling techniques to predict the heat release rate of the specimens, based on information obtained from cone calorimeter tests.<p> Full-scale fire tests of 10 cm thick polyurethane foams of different sizes were conducted using center and edge-ignition locations. Flame spread and heat release rates were compared. For specimens of the same size, center-ignition tests produced flame areas and peak heat release rates which were respectively 10 and 20% larger compared to edge-ignition tests. Average flame spread rates for horizontal and vertical spread were determined, and results showed excellent agreement with literature. Cone calorimeter tests of the specimens were performed using steel edge frame and open durarock board. Results indicate that different test arrangements and heat sources have significant effects on the fire behaviour of the specimens.<p> Predictions using the integral convolution model and other fire protection engineering correlations were compared with the full-scale tests results. Results show that the model was more efficient in predicting the heat release rates for edge-ignition tests than the center-ignition tests. The model also was more successful in predicting the heat release rates during the early part of the growth phase than during the later stages of the fire. The predicted and measured peak heat release rates and total heat release were within 10-15% of one another. Flame spread and t-squared fire models also gave satisfactory predictions of the full-scale fire behaviour of the specimens.

This thesis documents the design and fabrication of an experimental facility that was built to produce a turbulent plane wall jet. The target flow was two-dimensional with a uniform profile of the mean streamwise velocity and a low turbulence level at the slot exit. The design requirements for a flow conditioning apparatus that could produce this flow were determined. The apparatus was then designed and constructed, and measurements of the fluid flow were obtained using particle image velocimetry (PIV). The first series of measurements was along the slot width, the second series was along the slot centerline and the third was at 46 slot heights off the centerline. The Reynolds number, based on the slot height and jet exit velocity, of the wall jet varied from 7594 to 8121. Data for the streamwise and transverse components of velocity and the three associated Reynolds stress components were analyzed and used to determine the characteristics of the wall jet.<p> This experimental facility was able to produce a profile of the mean streamwise velocity near the slot exit that was uniform over 71% of the slot height with a streamwise turbulence that was equal to 1.45% of the mean velocity. This initial velocity was maintained to 6 slot heights. The fully developed region for the centerline and the off-centerline measurements was determined to extend from 50 to 100 slot heights and 40 to 100 slot heights, respectively. This was based on self-similarity of the mean streamwise velocity profiles when scaled using the maximum streamwise velocity and the jet half-width. The off-centerline Reynolds stress profiles achieved a greater degree of collapse than did the centerline profiles.<p> The rate of spread of the wall jet along the centerline was 0.080 in the self-similar region from 50 to 100 slot heights, and the off-centerline growth rate was 0.077 in the self-similar region from 40 to 100 slot heights. The decay rate of the maximum streamwise velocity was -0.624 within the centerline self-similar region, and -0.562 within the off-centerline self-similar region. These results for the spread and decay of the wall jet compared well with recent similar studies.<p> The two-dimensionality was initially assessed by measuring the mean streamwise velocity at 1 slot height along the entire slot width. The two-dimensionality of this wall jet was further analyzed by comparing the centerline and off-centerline profiles of the mean streamwise velocity at 2/3, 4, 50, 80, and 100 slot heights, and by comparing the growth rates and decay rates. Although this facility was able to produce a wall jet that was initially two-dimensional, the two-dimensionality was compromised downstream of the slot, most likely due to the presence of return flow and spanwise spreading. Without further measurements, it is not yet clear exactly how the lack of complete two-dimensionality affects the flow characteristics noted above.

Enterprises spread messages usingcomputer networks has become a trend due to popularity of the Internet. It is important for enterprises to select appropriate network media to achieve high effectiveness. It¡¦s even more important for Internet marketing companies to deploy marketing strategies given all possible media selections. The network media is progressing with new technical applications, such as email, blog, micro-blog and social network, etc. Each has its own development background and can achieve different effectiveness. The study of this thesis is to explore the differences of spread rates, diffusion time distribution etc. by spreading the same network messages with different network media (such as Email, social network, Facebook etc.). It will help enterprises to understandthe characteristics and effectiveness of each network medium. As a result, enterprisescan learn how to choose the right media to get the best message diffusion result. The study shows that various message carriers willexhibit different effectivenessdue to the nature of message contents. For example, commercial messages can be best delivered with Facebook while messages of special interests can be effectively delivered by email. Regardless what medium is chosen, two common phenomena can be observed: high click rate within the first 24 hours, and the low click rate in midnight.Enterprises will do a good spread messages plan using computer networks in known the two common phenomena.

Interior flat, white latex paint is a common coating applied to walls around the world. Development of a coating with one coat hide capability is a pinnacle achievement for paint formulators as it has the potential to save consumers both time and money. One coat paints already exist on the market, but they are limited in color, coverage, and often have many disclaimers. Work done was part of a project initiated by ChemoursTM Titanium Technologies. The goal of the project presented in this article was to create an interior flat, white latex paint that yields a spread rate of greater than 400 ft2/gal., which is advertised by many below critical pigment volume concentration (CPVC) commercial paints. In order to achieve this goal, an above CPVC paint with a high TiO2 content was created and continuously improved. Improvement of the formulation involved numerous experimental variations including adjustments to the hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) molecular weight, dispersant chemistry, latex chemistry, TiO2 concentration, extender package, and rheology modifier type. The sheen value, relative light scattering, and spread rate were the main measurements conducted in order to judge formulation improvement. Complications with the spread rate procedure forced its adaptation in order to collect less variable data with the high density, shear thinning formulations. It was found that shorter opacity charts yielded more precise spread rate data than the longer opacity charts. An attempt at correlating rheology with sheen development resulted in the conclusion that the pigment and extender particle package is the greatest driving factor behind sheen reduction. The rheology modifier type and dispersant chemistry did not affect the flatness of the paint nearly as much. A Keyence VR-3000 series One-Shot 3D Measuring Macroscope was used to show that surface roughness does not directly correlate to the sheen value when a number of flat paints with different sheens were analyzed. This project is an ongoing effort and the information contained in this document will substantially help future development.

<div>Due to the depletion of fossil fuel reserves and emission challenges associated with its usage, there is a need for alternative aviation fuels for future propulsion. The alternative fuels with handling, storage and combustion characteristics similar to conventional fuels can be used as “drop-in” fuels without significant changes to the existing aviation infrastructure. Fire safety characteristics of alternative aviation fuels have not been studied intensively and therefore research is needed to understand these characteristics. In this study, fire safety characteristics namely hot surface ignition (HSI) and flame spread phenomena are investigated for alternative aviation fuels. </div><div><br></div><div>HSI is defined as the process of a flammable liquid coming in contact with a hot surface and evaporating, mixing and reacting with the surrounding oxidizer with self-supporting heat release (combustion). If all the conditions are adequate, the fuel may completely turn into combustion products following the ignition process. This work presents results from more than 5000 ignition tests using a newly developed reproducible test apparatus. A uniform surface temperature stainless steel plate simulating the wall of a typical exhaust manifold of an aircraft engine is used as the hot surface. Ignition tests confirmed that the ignition event is transient and initiates at randomly distributed locations on the hot surface. The results show many significant differences and some similarities in the ignition characteristics and temperatures of the different fuels. In this work, hot surface ignition temperatures (HSITs) are measured for nine hydrocarbon liquids. Five of these fuels are piston engine based, three fuels are turbine-engine based and one fuel is a pure liquid, heptane. The piston engine based fuels are given by FAA and are confidential and hence labeled as test fuels A, B, C, D for this study. The HSITs of these fuels are measured and compared against a baseline fuel 100 LL aviation gasoline (100LL Avgas). HSITs of conventional turbine engine based fuels namely Jet-A, JP-8, and JP-5 are also measured. </div><div><br></div><div>Flame spread along liquid fuel has been one of the important combustion phenomena that still requires more in-depth research and analysis for the deep understanding of the chemical processes involved. Flame spread rate determines how fast the flame spreads along the fuel surface and it is an important parameter to study for fire safety purposes. For the flame spread rates study, a novel experimental apparatus is designed and fabricated. The experimental apparatus consists of a rectangular pan, a fuel heating system, an autonomous lid actuation system, a CO2 fire extinguisher system, and a laser ignition system. The flame spread phenomenon is studied for a conventional aviation fuel namely, Jet-A and three alternative aviation fuels namely, hydro-processed ester fatty acids (HEFA-50), Fischer-Tropsch – IPK (FT-IPK) and synthetic iso-paraffin (SIP). The experiments are conducted for a wide range of initial fuel temperatures ranging from 25°-100°C for Jet-A, HEFA-50, FT-IPK and from 80-140°C for SIP as the flash-point of SIP is 110°C and is ~3 times higher than that of other three fuels. The flame spread rate of all fuels increases exponentially with increasing fuel’s initial temperature. Flame spread rate is as low as ~5 cm/sec for Jet-A, HEFA-50, FT-IPK for 25°C initial fuel temperature and goes to as high as 160 cm/sec for 80°C initial fuel temperature. For SIP based jet fuel, flame spread rate is ~160 cm/sec for initial fuel temperature of 140°C. Additionally, it was also found that the flame propagation consists of two types of flames: a precursor blue flame located ahead of the main yellow flame. These flames are more evident over the fuels’ surface with initial fuel temperatures higher than their respective flash-points. The precursor blue flame propagates like a premixed flame and the main yellow flame propagates like diffusion combustion.</div><div><br></div><div>This dissertation includes eight chapters. Chapter 1 gives an overview of the work done until now in the field of hot surface ignition. Following this review, the experimental apparatus designed and fabricated for this study are discussed in Chapter 2. This chapter also talks about the test matrix, data acquisition tools and concludes with the data analysis method. In Chapter-3, HSITs of 3 turbine engine based fuels and 5 piston engine based fuels are reported. This chapter also discusses the effect of drop height and curvature (flat v/s cylindrical) for two fuels, Jet-A, and heptane. This concludes the work done in the field of HSI in this dissertation. Chapter 4 talks about the past work reported by various researchers in the field of flame spread phenomenon and key learnings from their work. Chapter 5 discusses the experimental apparatus designed and fabricated for flame spread phenomenon study. In chapter-6, flame spread rates of 4 alternative aviation fuels are reported. This chapter also discusses the flame spread mechanism associated with slower (liquid-phase controlled) and faster (gas-phase controlled) flame propagation. Chapter 7 discusses flame propagation which consists two types of flames: a precursor blue flame and a main yellow flame. Chapter 8 concludes the key findings of the hot surface ignition and flame spread phenomenon study in this research work </div><div><br></div>