This thesis investigates the performance of concentrically braced zipper frames through complementary experimental and numerical simulation approaches and proposes a design methodology for an innovative bracing scheme labeled as the suspended zipper frame. The suspended zipper frame intends to ensure that the top-story hat truss remains elastic, resulting in very ductile behavior of the structure. In the first part of the work, a three-story prototype frame was designed based on a preliminary design method. Three tests were conducted on one-third scale models of this prototype to verify the design procedure and assess the system performance under very different load histories. Comparisons of the results between analyses and experiments validated the partial-height zipper mechanism envisioned, and led to refinements of the design procedure and establishment of appropriate design details for these frames. The design and performance of this structural system are illustrated with three-, nine-, and twenty-story buildings designed for the same masses as those used in the SAC studies for the Los Angeles area. The proposed design strategy results in suspended zipper frames having more ductile behavior and higher strength than typical zipper frames. In addition, the suspended zipper frames also appear to reduce the tendency of chevron-braced frames to form soft stories and to improve seismic performance without having to use overly stiff beams. Finally, an explanation of the design philosophy as well as code language format of the design procedure is given.

The major concern in the design of the multi-storey buildings is the structure to have enough lateral stability to resist wind forces. There are different ways to limit the lateral drift. First method is to use unbraced frame with moment-resisting connections. Second one is to use braced frames with moment-resisting connections. Third one is to use pin-jointed connections instead of moment-resisting one and using bracings. Finally braced frame with both moment-resisting and pin-jointed connections is a solution. There are lots of bracing models and the designer should choose the appropriate one. This thesis investigates optimal lateral bracing systems in steel structures. The method selects appropriate sections for beams, columns and bracings, from a given steel section set, and obtains a design with least weight. After obtaining the best designs in case of weight, cost analysis of all structures are carried out so that the most economical model is found. For this purpose evolution strategies optimization method is used which is a member of the evolutionary algorithms search techniques. First optimum design of steel frames is introduced in the thesis. Then evolution strategies technique is explained. This is followed by some information about design loads and bracing systems are given. It is continued by the cost analysis of the models. Finally numerical examples are presented. Optimum designs of three different structures, comprising twelve different bracing models, are carried out. The calculations are carried out by a computer program (OPTSTEEL) which is recently developed to achieve size optimization design of skeletal structures.

Deficient concrete structures are serious danger in seismic zones. In order to minimize economical and human loss, these structures should be retrofitted. Selecting suitable retrofitting schemes requires detailed investigation of these systems. Considering these facts, this study aims to calibrate analytical models of systems with chevron braces and internal steel frames / and evaluate their seismic performances. First, analytical models of the frames with braces and internal steel frames were prepared and then their responses were compared with cyclic responses of experimental studies. Results of these models were used to determine performance limits by the methods proposed by TEC2007 and ASCE/SEI-41. Then, calibrated models were employed for time history analyses with various scales of Duzce ground motion and analytical results were compared with experimental findings. Seismic performance of these systems was also evaluated by using aforementioned codes. Finally, evaluated retrofitting schemes were applied to a 4-story 3-bay reinforced concrete frame that was obtained from an existing deficient structure and effectiveness of applied retrofitting schemes was investigated in detail.

The objective of this study is to investigate the use and efficiency of Differential Evolution (DE) method on structural optimization. The solution algorithm developed with DE is computerized into software called SOP2011 using VB.NET. SOP2011 is automated to achieve size optimum design of steel structures consisting of 1-D elements such as trusses and frames subjected to design provisions according to ASD-AISC (2010) and LRFD-AISC (2010). SOP2011 works simultaneously with the structural analysis and design software SAP2000 in order to find the global or near optimum designs for real size truss and frame structures in which the optimization problem is classified as constrained, discrete size optimization. Software interacts with SAP2000 through the Open Application Programming Interface (OAPI), which provides an access to information of SAP2000 inputs and outputs. It is programmed for finding reasonable and optimized results for truss and frame steel structures by choosing appropriate ready sections for structural members considering the minimum weight via DE technique. Based on the comparison of the obtained results with the literature, DE algorithm with penalty function implementation is proved to be an efficient optimization technique amongst several major methods used for discrete constrained size optimization of real size steel structures. Also, it has been shown that by using optimized designs obtained by DE, weight of the structures can be reduced up to 67.9% for steel truss structures and 41.7% for steel frame structures compared to SAP2000 auto design procedure, hence resulting a significant saving of materials, cost, work hours and energy required for the project.

Panel zone is one of the significant parts of beam-column connections in steel structures. Until the 1994 Northridge Earthquake, a few experimental research and parametric studies had been carried out to understand the behavior of the panel zones. However, after the Northridge Earthquake, it was observed that beam-column connections were unable to show presumed seismic performance. Therefore, current design codes needed to be revised to improve seismic performance of connections in general and panel zones in particular. In this research, panel zone deformation demands are examined using explicit three dimensional finite element models and considering different parameters. For this purpose, a frame model with two different beam-column configurations was developed in order to observe the effects of beam depth, the axial load level and the level of seismicity. The frame models were analyzed under twenty different ground motion records. Local strain demands at the panel zones as well as the global frame deformation demands are evaluated. Analysis results revealed that AISC Specification designs allowed panel zone yielding / however, panel zones designed according to FEMA 355D showed minimal yielding for both shallow and deep beam configurations. Based on the analysis results, local shear strain demands in panel zones were expressed as a function of interstory drifts and normalized panel zone thicknesses.

Este trabalho trata das principais filosofias de verificação de pilares à flexão composta em pórticos de aço assim como das normas que as recomendam. São discutidas as metodologias baseadas em comprimentos efetivos de flambagem, forças horizontais fictícias e análise avançada. É proposta uma metodologia de análise avançada utilizando elementos finitos de casca, que incorpora os efeitos das tensões residuais, imperfeições geométricas e não-linearidades geométricas e do material. São apresentados, ao final do trabalho, exemplos para comparação das diversas metodologias discutidas ao longo do texto. / This work discusses the main philosophies used to verify columns subjected to bending and compression in steel frames as well as the standards which recommend them. The effective length and notional loads approaches and the advanced analysis concept are discussed too. It is proposed a methodology of advanced analysis based on shell finite elements that accounts for the effects of residual stresses, geometric imperfections and geometric and material non-linearity. It is presented, at the end of the text, samples for the comparison of the several methodologies discussed throughout this work.

Stål är ett material som går att återvinna hur många gånger som helst utan att egenskaperna försämras. Men i återvinningsprocessen släpps det ut stora mängder koldioxid vilket har en negativ påverkan på klimat och miljö. Av den anledningen har intresset att försöka återanvända stål ökat för att försöka motverka dessa effekter. Idag är det tyvärr bara en liten andel av stålstommar som återbrukas i Sverige vilket kan ha att göra med avsaknaden av en större marknad och oklarheter i gällande regelverk. Men också att byggnader generellt inte är projekterade för att kunna demonteras, detta medför att tidsplaner och kostnader påverkas negativt vilket avskräcker aktörer från att återbruka stålstommar.   Idag finns det lite vägledning i hur en återbruksprocess skulle kunna se ut. Syftet med denna studie är att ta fram information och försöka kartlägga hur en återbruksprocess skulle kunna se ut i Sverige, och med det också eventuella hinder och provningsmetoder som finns. Detta för att i slutändan kunna säkerställa stålets kvalitet och möjlighet till återbruk, samtidigt som medvetenheten hos aktörer och företag kan öka.    I studien har intervjuer med sakkunniga inom ämnet utförts tillsammans med litteratursökning. Studien har resulterat i en generell process för återbruk av stålstommar som kan tillämpas i Sverige. För att återbruk av stålstommar ska bli mer eftertraktat krävs dock ändringar, både i projekteringsfasen för nya byggnader och formuleringar i regelverk måste ses över. Tillsammans med det krävs att en marknad för återbruk byggs upp så att aktörer kan få tag på återbrukbart stål till nya konstruktioner.   Nyckelord: Återbruk av stålstommar, kvalitetsmetoder för stål, Process

Sistemas estruturais constituídos por perfis de aço são, em geral, dimensionados de uma forma \"indireta\", isto é, cada componente é analisado e verificado segundo suas capacidades teóricas individualmente, normalmente associando-se condições de extremidade e comprimentos teóricos para cada barra de modo a aproximar a sua capacidade portante sob a condição real. Contudo, importantes efeitos como a transmissão do empenamento entre as barras devido à torção e/ou distorção, as restrições localizadas impostas por sistemas de contraventamento ou componentes diversos, e também a compatibilidade de deslocamentos locais/globais entre barras conectadas não alinhadas entre si, são desconsiderados, uma vez que o estudo de tais efeitos envolve, normalmente, custosos trabalhos de modelagem através de elementos finitos de casca (e/ou sólidos), soluções numéricas complexas e demoradas, e/ou estudos experimentais caros e trabalhosos. Neste contexto, alguns recentes trabalhos apontam para um vasto campo de aplicações das inovadoras potencialidades da Teoria Generalizada de Vigas (GBT), permitindo, em particular, a análise de sistemas estruturais que consideram os diversos efeitos provocados por condições de apoio arbitrárias, diferentes posições do carregamento e efeitos decorrentes das ligações entre as barras. Contudo, apesar de tais recursos ampliarem as aplicações da GBT na análise de estabilidade de sistemas estruturais, apenas um conjunto limitado de problemas pode ser atendido, especialmente quanto às ligações entre as barras. Os recentes trabalhos envolvendo a aplicação da GBT para a análise de estabilidade de pórticos metálicos dedicaram-se ao estudo de alguns casos específicos de ligações rígidas, isto é, assumem a hipótese de transferência completa dos deslocamentos generalizados entre as barras. Assim, uma vez que a rigidez de tais ligações pode ser responsável por mudanças significativas no comportamento do sistema estrutural em questão, este trabalho procura fornecer uma solução capaz de considerar a semirrigidez das ligações metálicas associada aos parâmetros modais típicos da GBT. Além disso, dada a possibilidade de ampliar os tipos de ligações analisadas por meio da GBT, incluindo as configurações mais comumente utilizadas na prática, apresentam-se novos conjuntos de relações cinemáticas desenvolvidas para tal, assim como as referidas validações, que são realizadas por meio de análises utilizando o programa computacional ANSYS®. / Steel structural systems are usually associated with an \"indirect approach\", i.e., each component of the respective structure is analysed and verified according to its theoretical individual capacity. Normally, in order to approximate the real behaviour of the structural system, specific support conditions and effective length concepts are used to analyse each structural member separately. However, some important effects are disregarded in this procedure, like the warping transmission at frame joints (due to torsion and/or distortion), or those stemming from localized supports associated with bracing systems, as well as the local/global displacements compatibility of the cross-section walls at the joint region. Additionally, studies considering the above mentioned effects involves rather complicated and time-consuming numerical analyses using shell and/or solid finite elements, and/or expensive experimental investigation. On the other hand, some recent studies revealed a large field for application of the Generalized Beam Theory (GBT) in the context of the stability, first and second order analyses of structural systems, considering, particularly, the effects caused by arbitrary support conditions, different load positions, and the effects caused by connections between members. Nonetheless, all the recent works applying GBT for stability analysis of steel frames are focused on some specific cases of rigid connections, i.e., they assume the full transfer of the generalized displacements between the non-aligned members. Thus, given the well-known fact that the rigidity of connections may lead to considerable changes of the structural behaviour of steel structural systems, this work deals with the development of a solution to incorporate the semi-rigidity of the steel frame connections to the modal parameters of the GBT. Furthermore, given the possibility to expand the connection types analysed by means of GBT, including the most commonly used configurations adopted in practice, it is presented the related new kinematic relations developed, as well as the validation studies carried out in the software ANSYS®.

Esse trabalho apresenta um estudo comparativo entre métodos simplificados para avaliação da estabilidade de pórticos planos de aço. Aspectos relacionados à classificação das estruturas de aço quanto à deslocabilidade e sistema de contraventamento são apresentados e discutidos. O tradicional procedimento do comprimento efetivo de flambagem, ainda presente em algumas normas, é confrontado com métodos que empregam forças horizontais fictícias para contabilizar os efeitos desestabilizantes, tais como imperfeições geométricas iniciais e tensões residuais. Uma análise numérica avançada via MEF que permite a modelagem explícita dos efeitos que contribuem para a instabilidade de pórticos é empregada como referência na comparação dos resultados. É avaliada a resposta de pilares isolados, edifícios industriais e de múltiplos andares. Os métodos que empregam forças horizontais fictícias foram considerados adequados, pois além de eliminar o cálculo do comprimento efetivo de flambagem, apresentaram resultados mais consistentes em relação à análise avançada. / Two strategies for assessing steel frame stability and beam-column design are studied and compared. Some aspects related to bracing system and sway or non-sway classification are also discussed. The traditional procedure based on effective lengths are compared with some approaches based on notional loads, which propose a set of notional horizontal loads for account stability effects such as initial geometric imperfections and residual stresses. The results are compared with an advanced analysis using FEM, which consists in an explicit modeling of stability effects. Some industrial and multistory frames are studied and the results show that the notional load based procedures are accurate. These procedures are also practical because the need for effective length factors is eliminated.

In current design of steel eccentrically braced frames (EBFs), the yielding link is coupled with the floor beam. This often results in oversized link elements, which leads to over-designed structures and foundations. In addition, the beams are expected to sustain significant damage through repeated inelastic deformations under design level earthquakes, and thus the structure may require extensive repair or need to be replaced. These drawbacks can be mitigated by designing EBFs with replaceable shear links. Two different replaceable link types with alternate section profiles, connection configurations, welding details and intermediate stiffener spacing were tested. A total of 13 cyclic quasi-static full-scale cyclic tests were performed, which included tests on eccentrically braced frames with the replaceable shear links, to study their inelastic seismic performance. The links exhibited a very good ductile behaviour, developing stable and repeatable yielding. Additional inelastic rotation capacity can be achieved with bolted replaceable links when allowing bolt bearing deformations to occur. The on-site replaceability of the link sections is confirmed even in the presence of residual deformations of 0.5% drift.