Students with disabilities have traditionally achieved to a lesser degree than have their nondisabled peers. Since the 1950s the federal government has enacted laws to provide free, appropriate public education to students with disabilities. In the first decade of the 21st Century the government has produced legislation requiring schools to be responsible for improving instruction for students with disabilities. One of the major trends in accomplishing this task is a move toward inclusive education. This study determined the relationships of assessment type (Standards of Learning (SOL) assessments versus Virginia Grade Level Alternative (VGLA) assessments) and models of service delivery (general education inclusion classes versus special education pullout classes) for students with disabilities in grades 3 through 8 on student achievement in 4 counties in Southwest Virginia. Similar studies have been conducted with varying results noted. The review of the literature includes 18 studies that compared the achievement of students with disabilities who were instructed in the general education classroom with the achievement of students with disabilities who were instructed in the special education classroom. Significant differences were noted in 11 of the reviewed studies. The data were analyzed using chi-square analysis and pairwise comparisons. The findings indicate that there is a relationship between instructional delivery method (inclusion or pullout) and proficiency in reading and math. Students who were educated in the inclusion classrooms tended to have a higher incidence of pass proficient ratings and students in the pullout classrooms tended to have a higher incidence of pass advanced ratings. The findings also indicate that there is a relationship between assessment method (SOL assessment or VGLA) and proficiency in reading and math. Students who were assessed via the SOL assessment tended to have a higher incidence of pass proficient ratings and students who were assessed via the VGLA assessment tended to have a higher incidence of pass advanced ratings.

The purpose of this quantitative study was to determine if there was a relationship between the TCAP test and Pearson Benchmark assessment in elementary students’ reading and language arts and math performance in a northeastern Tennessee school district. This study involved 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th grade students. The study focused on the following subgroups: gender, Title I school status, and socioeconomic status as determined by free and reduced-price meal benefits. Test scores of students taking the Pearson Benchmark assessment in the fall, winter, and spring of the 2011-2012 academic school year and the TCAP in the spring of the 2012 academic school year were compared. Test scores were collected from 5 elementary schools. A total of 1,069 students were included in this study. The analysis focused on 10 research questions. Data collected for this study were entered into an Excel data file for analysis using IBM-SPSS. The research questions were examined using the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients, the t test for independent samples, and the multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to account for differences in a set of 2 dependent variables. Based on the analyses and findings of this study, there appears to be a positive relationship between the TCAP test and Pearson Benchmark assessment in elementary students’ reading and language arts and math performance in a northeastern Tennessee school district. This relationship extended across students’ gender, Title I school status, and socioeconomic status as determined by free and reduced-price meal benefits. Major recommendations from this study included the use of formative assessment benchmark tools to generate timely data aimed at the improvement of student learning and achievement, tracking the time spent on benchmark testing and carefully evaluating whether this is the optimal use of student academic time, analyzing the use of formative assessment and the relationship to teacher growth and development, and considering the development of the whole child as opposed to strictly focusing on quantitative academic measures to define student success.

The purpose of this quantitative study was to provide research in examining the difference in student achievement in reading and math through the quantitative data collection of North Carolina EOG scores for students in third through fifth grade from one high poverty and high performing North Carolina public school district before and after implementation of RtI. The population of this study included all students in the public school system who participated in EOG testing during the 2009-2012 school years in grades 3-5. Data collection was carried out using the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction Testing and Accountability website to acquire North Carolina End of Grade scores for cohort grouped students for school years: 2007-2008, 2008-2009, 2009-2010, 2010-2011, 2011-2012. Each research question had a corresponding null hypothesis. A chi-square analysis was conducted on each of the 6 research questions. All data were analyzed at the .05 level of significance. Findings indicated little difference in student achievement in reading and math EOG scores for students in third through fifth grade before and after district implementation of RtI.

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This paper provides a history of the standardized testing and accountability movement, the curriculum standards attached to the accountability movement, and the attempted shift to common core. Student poverty and its impact on student achievement the focus of this paper. Recognizing the impact of poverty on student achievement as measured by standardized tests the authors question the explicit practices of teacher preparation programs in preparing teacher candidates to work with students of poverty

Disruptive classroom behavior has led many schools to implement positive behavioral strategies intended to create orderly learning environments. Despite initiation of such a strategy, an elementary school in the mid-Atlantic region still experienced an increase in office referrals and a decline in student achievement. The purpose of this mixed methods case study was to investigate the connections between a blended behavior program and student behavior and academic achievement, as well as staff perceptions about their experience with the program, and the degree to which the practices were implemented with fidelity. Skinner's behavioral theory served as the theoretical basis for the investigation. Office referrals and standardized math scores of 72 students were analyzed across 3 years, including the year before and the 2 years following the implementation of the blended behavior program, to determine whether significant differences existed within-subjects. Interviews were conducted with 9 teachers, representing kindergarten-6th grade, to explore staff perceptions of the blended behavior program. Quantitative results indicated a reduction in referrals after the 1st year of implementing the blended program and an improvement in math achievement after the 2nd year. While a decline in math scores occurred the 1st year of implementation and an increase the 2nd year, the difference in net performance rendered the results inconclusive to determine the influence of the program on achievement. Qualitative results revealed inconsistencies in the way teachers implemented the program initiatives. This study contributes to positive social change by providing stakeholders a deeper understanding of the blended program and increasing staff capacity to manage challenging behaviors.

The relationship between transformational leadership and student academic achievement in diverse urban elementary schools is under-researched. However, studies have indicated that there are no evident gains in student achievement when administrators and teachers differ on views of effective leadership practices. The purpose of this quantitative study was to examine the relationship between teachers' perceptions of administrator leadership practices and student achievement in English language arts (ELA) and mathematics within diverse elementary schools. Burns's seminal theory on transformational leadership was the theoretical framework for this study. The research questions were designed to explore the relationship between teachers' perceived rating of transformational leadership practices of administrators and student academic achievement in ELA and mathematics. The study was a secondary analysis of publicly available data from 595 elementary schools surveyed by the New York City Department of Education. Two one-way analysis of variance were conducted. From the data, a post hoc test was conducted that determined significant differences between teacher ratings of administrators and student achievement levels in ELA and mathematics. The results indicated the higher the transformational leadership score of administrators, the greater the student academic achievement level. This study may influence district superintendents to offer professional development to administrators, to participate in intervisitation between higher achieving schools and lower achieving schools, and to have administrators mentor one another in cohorts. Positive social change may result by assisting and guiding administrators to use effective transformational leadership practices to improve school climate, trust, and job satisfaction.

U.S. public education is regulated by accountability policies designed to ensure that all students, and those who are responsible for their education, are held to high academic standards. Accountability policies at the federal and state level have unintended consequences for educators, with principals and teachers experiencing increased job stress, decreased job satisfaction, and increased numbers of teachers and principals leaving the profession. The construct of efficacy may be a critical component in meeting the established accountability demands. Perception of self-efficacy is one’s personal belief in one’s ability to achieve a desired outcome. Similarly, perception of collective efficacy is a system-level construct, the collective belief of a group of individuals that, together, they can achieve a desired outcome. In general, efficacy beliefs are shaped by four primary sources: mastery experiences, verbal or social persuasion, vicarious experiences, and physiological or affective states. Beliefs of efficacy are also contextual in nature, varying across situations or settings. Within the field of education, beliefs of teacher and principal self-efficacy and of collective teacher efficacy have been shown to positively impact teacher and principal behaviors as well as student achievement. Given the context of state accountability policies in the area of literacy and the known relationship between efficacy beliefs and student achievement, this study examined the following two research questions: (RQ1) How do principals feel about their abilities to lead their schools? and (RQ2) What is the relationship between principals’ perceptions of their abilities to lead their schools and collective teacher efficacy perceptions? The target population for the study included public elementary school principals and teachers from Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Wisconsin. Consenting participants completed a two-part survey, including demographic information and the Principal Sense of Efficacy Scale (Tschannen-Moran & Gareis, 2004) for participating principals or Collective Teacher Beliefs Scale (Tschannen-Moran & Barr, 2004) for participating teachers. Variables for analysis included: gender of the principal, the principal’s years at the school, school size, school type (rural, suburban, urban), socioeconomic status (SES) based on free or reduced lunch (FRL), special education (IEP), English Language Learners (ELL), race/ethnicity, student achievement based on percent of students scoring proficient on the state English Language Arts/Reading assessment, principal self-efficacy perceptions, and collective teacher efficacy perceptions. The researcher employed descriptive statistics, t-tests, one-way ANOVAs, correlational analysis, and hierarchical multiple regression analyses to answer the research questions. Results indicated principal self-efficacy perceptions were significantly different based on school type (rural, suburban, urban) and free or reduced lunch (FRL) but not by other demographic variables of the principal or the school. In addition, principal self-efficacy perceptions were positively correlated with collective teacher efficacy perceptions (r= .435, p< .05). Furthermore, perceptions of principal self-efficacy were not a significant predictor of collective teacher efficacy perceptions. Years of experience in the building of the principal was the only significant predictor of perceptions of collective teacher efficacy.

This study collected evidence to address the assumptions underlying the use of the Utah Core Assessment to Pre-Algebra (UCAP) to (a) measure student achievement in pre-algebra, and (b) assist teachers in making adjustments to instruction. An evaluative argument was defined to guide the collection of evidence. Each of the assumptions in the evaluative argument was addressed using data from a suburban northern Utah school district. To collect the evidence, test content was examined including item match to course objectives, reliability, and subtest intercorrelations. Analyses of correlations of the UCAP with convergent and discriminant measures were completed using student test data (N = 1,461), including an examination of both the pattern of correlations and tests of statistical significance. Pre-algebra teachers (N = 12) were interviewed to ascertain the degree to which UCAP results were used to make necessary adjustments to instruction. It was found that the UCAP was technically sound, but measured only 65% of course objectives. Correlation coefficients were analyzed using pattern comparisons and tests of statistical significance. It was found that the pattern of correlation coefficients and the distinction of convergent and discriminant measures supported the UCAP as a measure of mathematics. Teacher interview data revealed that teachers did not make substantive adjustments to the instruction of pre-algebra based on test scores. Based on these results it was concluded that the underlying assumptions concerning the use of the UCAP were not fully supported. The lack of complete coverage of the pre-algebra course objectives calls into question the ability of the UCAP scores to be used as measures of student achievement, in spite of the technical quality of the test. There was support for the assumption that the UCAP measures mathematics. There was little evidence that teachers use the UCAP score reports to make meaningful and appropriate adjustments to instruction. More evidence is needed to understand the factors that may have led to this lack of use. The evaluative argument framework defined in this study provides guidance for future research to collect evidence of the validity of decisions based on UCAP scores.

The major purposes of this study were to provide validation data for the Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction (QTI) with a large Australian sample and examine the relationship of teacher-student interpersonal behaviour with student sex, cultural background and student outcomes. The sample from lower secondary science classrooms in Australia consisted of 3,215 students in 158 classes in 43 schools in two Australian states, namely Tasmania and Western Australia. The sample was chosen carefully so as to be representative, though only co-educational classes were used in order to permit an unconfounded test of sex differences. Students and teachers completed a questionnaire which included the QT1, an attitude to class scale based on the Test of Science Related Attitudes (TOSRA), a cognitive achievement measure based on items from the Test of Enquiry Skills (TOES) and a five-item cultural background survey. The study follows the current trend in the field of classroom environment research of combining qualitative and quantitative methods. The qualitative component of the study involved about 100 interviews. This study is unique in that it provides a very large database of teacher-student interaction data in science classrooms and provides new insights into the relationships between teacher-student interpersonal behaviour with student sex, cultural background and student outcomes. The study found that there were associations between teacher student interpersonal behaviour and student sex and that there were differences in the way that students from different cultural backgrounds perceived their learning environments. Student achievement and student attitude to class were also found to be positively associated with teacher-student interpersonal behaviour. As a practical outcome of this study, the 48-item QT1 has been shown to be useful to Australian lower secondary science ++ / teachers as an initiator of self reflection on teaching practice.