Pregnancy and childbirth are important life experiences in a woman’s psychosocial and psychological development. For many women, vaginal birth is still considered an integral part of being a woman and becoming a mother. Furthermore, it is thought to promote maternal well-being through helping women to match their expectations to experiences. For these women, a failed natural birth can be a psychological, psychosocial, and existential challenge that can result in significant and far-reaching consequences for their psychological wellbeing. Research, especially recent research, on the experiences of women who most wanted to, but were unable to deliver their babies naturally is relatively rare. This is surprising given the potential implications of these experiences on a mother’s emotional well-being, as well as for her feelings towards her new baby. Nevertheless, literature on the topic presents a coherent perspective on the problem and indicates that these women experience difficulties in adapting to not being able to fulfill their dream of delivering their baby naturally. There is no existing research on the subjective experiences of South African women who delivered their babies by unplanned Caesarean section. This study therefore aimed to contribute to knowledge that may fill this gap to some extent. Through purposeful sampling, ten mothers who had wanted to deliver their babies naturally, but had not been able to for whatever reason, were selected as the study sample. Various aspects of their birth experiences were explored in indepth phenomenological interviews. This allowed the researcher to probe certain aspects offered by participants in order to understand and explore their contributions in as much depth as possible. A semi-structured, open-ended approach allowed for the exploration of relevant opinions, perceptions, feelings, and comments in relation to the women’s unplanned Caesarean experiences. The transcribed data was synthesized within a framework of phenomenological theory, where women’s experiences were analyzed and explored in an attempt to understand how participants made sense of their experiences. The different aspects of women’s experiences were explored in three substudies. The results are reported in three manuscripts/articles. Research suggests that post-partum adjustment difficulties are influenced by the potentially virulent stress reactions generated in response to a perceived birth trauma. The objective of the first article was to explore women’s labour and birthing accounts with specific regard to the subsequent stress responses experienced. The stress responses experienced by the women in this study both prior to, and during the Caesarean section were predominantly anxiety-based. This was distinguished from the post-partum period, where women described having experienced more depressive symptoms. Post-traumatic stress responses are associated with negative perceptions of the birth, self and infant. The experience of adverse emotional consequences during the post-partum period can undermine a woman’s ability to successfully adapt to her role as a mother, meet the needs of her infant, and cope with post-partum challenges. The second article highlighted the possible impact of women’s unexpected and potentially traumatic childbirth experiences on initial mother-infant bonding. The unplanned Caesarean sections left mothers feeling detached from the birthing process and disconnected from their infants. Passivity, initial separation, and delayed physical contact further compromised mother-infant interaction. Postpartum physical complications and emotional disturbances have important implications for a woman’s perceptions of herself as a mother and her ability to provide for her infant, her self-esteem, and feelings of relatedness with her baby. Adverse responses to a traumatic birth experience could therefore influence the establishment of a maternal role identity, the formation of balanced maternal attachment representations, the caregiving system, and ultimately initial motherinfant bonding. In the third article, women’s experiences were contextualized in relevant coping resources and strategies. The processes occurring during a traumatic birth experience, such as during an unplanned Caesarean section, could be influenced by perceived strengths when coping with the stress related to the incident. The mothers in this study described several factors and coping strategies that they perceived to have been effective in reducing the impact of their traumatic birth experiences. These included active coping strategies, problem-focused coping strategies, and emotion-focused coping strategies. Coping strategies could result in reassessment of the birth process, and be associated with a more positive, acceptable and memorable experience. This study contributes to nursing, midwifery and psychological literature, by adding to the professional understanding of the emotional consequences of surgical delivery on South African childbearing women. This exploration therefore has important implications for preventative measures, therapeutic intervention, and professional guidance. However, the restricted sample may limit the generalizability of results. Further investigation of the experiences of a larger, more biographically and culturally diverse population could be instrumental in the development of knowledge and understanding in this field of study. / Thesis (PhD (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

Pregnancy and childbirth are important life experiences in a woman’s psychosocial and psychological development. For many women, vaginal birth is still considered an integral part of being a woman and becoming a mother. Furthermore, it is thought to promote maternal well-being through helping women to match their expectations to experiences. For these women, a failed natural birth can be a psychological, psychosocial, and existential challenge that can result in significant and far-reaching consequences for their psychological wellbeing. Research, especially recent research, on the experiences of women who most wanted to, but were unable to deliver their babies naturally is relatively rare. This is surprising given the potential implications of these experiences on a mother’s emotional well-being, as well as for her feelings towards her new baby. Nevertheless, literature on the topic presents a coherent perspective on the problem and indicates that these women experience difficulties in adapting to not being able to fulfill their dream of delivering their baby naturally. There is no existing research on the subjective experiences of South African women who delivered their babies by unplanned Caesarean section. This study therefore aimed to contribute to knowledge that may fill this gap to some extent. Through purposeful sampling, ten mothers who had wanted to deliver their babies naturally, but had not been able to for whatever reason, were selected as the study sample. Various aspects of their birth experiences were explored in indepth phenomenological interviews. This allowed the researcher to probe certain aspects offered by participants in order to understand and explore their contributions in as much depth as possible. A semi-structured, open-ended approach allowed for the exploration of relevant opinions, perceptions, feelings, and comments in relation to the women’s unplanned Caesarean experiences. The transcribed data was synthesized within a framework of phenomenological theory, where women’s experiences were analyzed and explored in an attempt to understand how participants made sense of their experiences. The different aspects of women’s experiences were explored in three substudies. The results are reported in three manuscripts/articles. Research suggests that post-partum adjustment difficulties are influenced by the potentially virulent stress reactions generated in response to a perceived birth trauma. The objective of the first article was to explore women’s labour and birthing accounts with specific regard to the subsequent stress responses experienced. The stress responses experienced by the women in this study both prior to, and during the Caesarean section were predominantly anxiety-based. This was distinguished from the post-partum period, where women described having experienced more depressive symptoms. Post-traumatic stress responses are associated with negative perceptions of the birth, self and infant. The experience of adverse emotional consequences during the post-partum period can undermine a woman’s ability to successfully adapt to her role as a mother, meet the needs of her infant, and cope with post-partum challenges. The second article highlighted the possible impact of women’s unexpected and potentially traumatic childbirth experiences on initial mother-infant bonding. The unplanned Caesarean sections left mothers feeling detached from the birthing process and disconnected from their infants. Passivity, initial separation, and delayed physical contact further compromised mother-infant interaction. Postpartum physical complications and emotional disturbances have important implications for a woman’s perceptions of herself as a mother and her ability to provide for her infant, her self-esteem, and feelings of relatedness with her baby. Adverse responses to a traumatic birth experience could therefore influence the establishment of a maternal role identity, the formation of balanced maternal attachment representations, the caregiving system, and ultimately initial motherinfant bonding. In the third article, women’s experiences were contextualized in relevant coping resources and strategies. The processes occurring during a traumatic birth experience, such as during an unplanned Caesarean section, could be influenced by perceived strengths when coping with the stress related to the incident. The mothers in this study described several factors and coping strategies that they perceived to have been effective in reducing the impact of their traumatic birth experiences. These included active coping strategies, problem-focused coping strategies, and emotion-focused coping strategies. Coping strategies could result in reassessment of the birth process, and be associated with a more positive, acceptable and memorable experience. This study contributes to nursing, midwifery and psychological literature, by adding to the professional understanding of the emotional consequences of surgical delivery on South African childbearing women. This exploration therefore has important implications for preventative measures, therapeutic intervention, and professional guidance. However, the restricted sample may limit the generalizability of results. Further investigation of the experiences of a larger, more biographically and culturally diverse population could be instrumental in the development of knowledge and understanding in this field of study. / Thesis (PhD (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

Research regarding the imprisonment of a family member has mainly focused on the effects of parental imprisonment on the children in that family. Literature indicates that the child of an imprisoned parent has to deal with numerous challenges, including stigma and shame related to their parent‟s arrest and imprisonment. Other common feelings these children might experience include anger, confusion and sadness. Furthermore these children often experience pressure related to keeping the imprisonment a secret from those close to them. These children might also face multiple separations from the imprisoned parent, experience changes with regards to residence, school and friendships, adoption of adult roles and responsibilities, financial distress, lack of supervision and more. When compared to literature regarding parental imprisonment relatively few studies have been done on the effects of imprisonment on the family as a whole, especially in the South African context. The available research indicates there are numerous implications for the family as a whole. Some of these implications include stigma, financial stress, role changes within the family, relational problems between family members (including extended family), challenges in dealing with the criminal justice system and emotional distress (feelings of loneliness, anxiety, isolation and worry). The aim of this study was to explore and describe the changes that take place in family functioning when a member of that family is imprisoned as they are perceived by the members of the nuclear family. A qualitative description (descriptive) research approach was used in this study. Purposive sampling was used to recruit participants. Six voluntary participants (all family members of imprisoned individuals) from four families were recruited. Participants were aged between 15 and 75, consisted of one male and five females. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect data. These interviews were audio recorded and then transcribed. Initial questions for the semi-structured interviews were obtained using the McMaster Model of Family Functioning as a guiding framework. Therefore, first deductive (directed) content analysis was used, after which thematic analysis was then done on the transcribed data. From the analysis two main themes and nine subthemes emerged. It was found that participants relied more on their family members for problem solving, were generally more open-hearted and honest with their communication towards each other while limiting potentially distressing communication and they experienced changes in the roles and responsibilities within the family. Participants also reported experiencing new emotions (positive and negative) and experienced increased support, understanding and involvement from their family members. They furthermore experienced changes in behaviour control and household rules ranging from rigid to laissez-faire and often fluctuating between these. Some participants reported experiencing more support from outside the family. Participants furthermore reported feeling stigmatised and isolated within their communities. They also experienced gaining resilience and inner strength and found strength through their religious beliefs. The findings of this study can‟t be generalized due to the limited demographic variability and small sample size. Limited research is available regarding the changes in family functioning after the imprisonment of a family member in the family as a whole, especially in the South African context. The identification of religion and resilience (as subthemes identified from the data) as they relate to coping is probably the most important contribution of this study as it is not discussed in any of the models of family functioning mentioned in this study, including the McMaster Model of Family Functioning. It is recommended that further research focus on both resilience and religion as they relate to coping and possibly contribute to family functioning after the imprisonment of a family member. It is furthermore suggested that specific intervention programs be developed to help families function effectively after the imprisonment of a family member. These intervention programs might include group work with different families or working with individual families either with skills development, psycho-education or therapeutically. / MA (Clinical Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Research regarding the imprisonment of a family member has mainly focused on the effects of parental imprisonment on the children in that family. Literature indicates that the child of an imprisoned parent has to deal with numerous challenges, including stigma and shame related to their parent‟s arrest and imprisonment. Other common feelings these children might experience include anger, confusion and sadness. Furthermore these children often experience pressure related to keeping the imprisonment a secret from those close to them. These children might also face multiple separations from the imprisoned parent, experience changes with regards to residence, school and friendships, adoption of adult roles and responsibilities, financial distress, lack of supervision and more. When compared to literature regarding parental imprisonment relatively few studies have been done on the effects of imprisonment on the family as a whole, especially in the South African context. The available research indicates there are numerous implications for the family as a whole. Some of these implications include stigma, financial stress, role changes within the family, relational problems between family members (including extended family), challenges in dealing with the criminal justice system and emotional distress (feelings of loneliness, anxiety, isolation and worry). The aim of this study was to explore and describe the changes that take place in family functioning when a member of that family is imprisoned as they are perceived by the members of the nuclear family. A qualitative description (descriptive) research approach was used in this study. Purposive sampling was used to recruit participants. Six voluntary participants (all family members of imprisoned individuals) from four families were recruited. Participants were aged between 15 and 75, consisted of one male and five females. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect data. These interviews were audio recorded and then transcribed. Initial questions for the semi-structured interviews were obtained using the McMaster Model of Family Functioning as a guiding framework. Therefore, first deductive (directed) content analysis was used, after which thematic analysis was then done on the transcribed data. From the analysis two main themes and nine subthemes emerged. It was found that participants relied more on their family members for problem solving, were generally more open-hearted and honest with their communication towards each other while limiting potentially distressing communication and they experienced changes in the roles and responsibilities within the family. Participants also reported experiencing new emotions (positive and negative) and experienced increased support, understanding and involvement from their family members. They furthermore experienced changes in behaviour control and household rules ranging from rigid to laissez-faire and often fluctuating between these. Some participants reported experiencing more support from outside the family. Participants furthermore reported feeling stigmatised and isolated within their communities. They also experienced gaining resilience and inner strength and found strength through their religious beliefs. The findings of this study can‟t be generalized due to the limited demographic variability and small sample size. Limited research is available regarding the changes in family functioning after the imprisonment of a family member in the family as a whole, especially in the South African context. The identification of religion and resilience (as subthemes identified from the data) as they relate to coping is probably the most important contribution of this study as it is not discussed in any of the models of family functioning mentioned in this study, including the McMaster Model of Family Functioning. It is recommended that further research focus on both resilience and religion as they relate to coping and possibly contribute to family functioning after the imprisonment of a family member. It is furthermore suggested that specific intervention programs be developed to help families function effectively after the imprisonment of a family member. These intervention programs might include group work with different families or working with individual families either with skills development, psycho-education or therapeutically. / MA (Clinical Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The profession of psychology in South Africa has not always been regulated by a statutory body such as the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA). Currently, the profession of psychology is regulated by the HPCSA and psychologists and the HPCSA find themselves in a lawful and interminable relationship. The HPCSA’s motto is to protect the public and to guide the profession, but it was questioned whether psychologists actually experience guidance from the HPCSA. In response to this problem, this study aimed to explore the subjective experiences of a group of South African psychologists regarding the HPCSA as well as the ethical code which serves as a guideline for the conduct of psychologists. This study made use of a sequential mixed method design, which comprised of a qualitative phase followed by a quantitative phase. All participants in this study were qualified psychologists. Seven participants took part in the qualitative phase and 74 participants took part in the quantitative phase. The data from the qualitative phase was grouped into broad categories and served as the basis for compiling a questionnaire for the quantitative phase. After collecting the completed questionnaires, the data was read into SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), which was used for the statistical analysis of the data. The data was analysed by means of frequency distributions and mean scores. During the analysis of the data, six themes where identified: five regarding the HPCSA as the regulator of psychology and one regarding the ethical code that guides the conduct of psychologists. The themes include “guidance and mentorship”, “the HPCSA as a watchdog”, “the HPCSA’s motive”, “reverence that psychologists have for the HPCSA”, “the competence of the HPCSA” and “psychologists’ view on the ethical code”. The results indicated that an ambiguous relationship exists between this group of psychologists and the HPCSA, as these two entities seem to function separately. Generally, psychologists who took part in this research have a negative view towards the HPCSA, although they realise the necessity for the HPCSA as a regulating body for psychology. The recognition of this need is a platform for a workable relationship between psychologists and the HPCSA. The participants provided less detail and responded more neutral regarding their views on the ethical code, and it is concerning that quite a number of psychologists indicated that they did not know the code. This study concludes with recommendations for the HPCSA to be more approachable and to provide psychologists with more support. / Thesis (M.A. (Research Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

The profession of psychology in South Africa has not always been regulated by a statutory body such as the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA). Currently, the profession of psychology is regulated by the HPCSA and psychologists and the HPCSA find themselves in a lawful and interminable relationship. The HPCSA’s motto is to protect the public and to guide the profession, but it was questioned whether psychologists actually experience guidance from the HPCSA. In response to this problem, this study aimed to explore the subjective experiences of a group of South African psychologists regarding the HPCSA as well as the ethical code which serves as a guideline for the conduct of psychologists. This study made use of a sequential mixed method design, which comprised of a qualitative phase followed by a quantitative phase. All participants in this study were qualified psychologists. Seven participants took part in the qualitative phase and 74 participants took part in the quantitative phase. The data from the qualitative phase was grouped into broad categories and served as the basis for compiling a questionnaire for the quantitative phase. After collecting the completed questionnaires, the data was read into SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), which was used for the statistical analysis of the data. The data was analysed by means of frequency distributions and mean scores. During the analysis of the data, six themes where identified: five regarding the HPCSA as the regulator of psychology and one regarding the ethical code that guides the conduct of psychologists. The themes include “guidance and mentorship”, “the HPCSA as a watchdog”, “the HPCSA’s motive”, “reverence that psychologists have for the HPCSA”, “the competence of the HPCSA” and “psychologists’ view on the ethical code”. The results indicated that an ambiguous relationship exists between this group of psychologists and the HPCSA, as these two entities seem to function separately. Generally, psychologists who took part in this research have a negative view towards the HPCSA, although they realise the necessity for the HPCSA as a regulating body for psychology. The recognition of this need is a platform for a workable relationship between psychologists and the HPCSA. The participants provided less detail and responded more neutral regarding their views on the ethical code, and it is concerning that quite a number of psychologists indicated that they did not know the code. This study concludes with recommendations for the HPCSA to be more approachable and to provide psychologists with more support. / Thesis (M.A. (Research Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Subjective career success has been the focus of research for a number of years. The term refers to the individual’s personal perception of how successful he/she is in a career. In many qualitative studies subjective career success is found to be a multi-dimensional construct. Although there are quantitative instruments that measure subjective career success, they do not measure the construct on multiple dimensions. The first objective of this study was to determine the validity and reliability of two existing multi-dimensional instruments that measure subjective career success, especially in the South African context. These are the Perceived Career Success Scale (Gattiker & Larwood, 1986) and the Life-success Measures Scale (Parker & Chusmir, 1992). The second objective was to determine which predictors can be found for subjective career success. Literature differentiates between three broad categories of variables, namely demographical (gender, language group, marital status and age), human capital (job tenure, level of education and career planning) and organisational variables (perceived organisational support and training, and development opportunities). A convenience sample of 754 personnel from the South African Police Service was taken at stations and training colleges in the Free State, South Africa. A measuring battery that assesses subjective career success was used. This entailed the Perceived Career Success Scale as well as the Life-success Measures Scale. In addition, questions were used to ascertain the three types of variables demographic (gender, language group, marital status and age), human capital (job tenure, level of education and career planning) and organisational variables (perceived organisational support and training and development opportunities). The following statistical analyses were done to analyse the data: descriptive and inferential statistics, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, product-moment correlations, confirmatory factor analysis and linear regression analysis. The results of these analyses indicate that subjective career success is indeed a multi-dimensional construct. Three dimensions (job success, interpersonal success and non-organisational success) of the Perceived Career Success Scale (Gattiker & Larwood, 1986) could be established. These dimensions yielded good reliability, but the validity remained problematic. In contrast, the Life-success Measures Scale (Parker & Chusmir, 1992) yielded four dimensions (security, social contribution, professional fulfilment and personal fulfilment). The psychometric properties of these dimensions were acceptable and showed to be reliable and valid. In addition, various demographic, human capital and organisational variables were found to be predictors of subjective career success. Career planning, training and developmental opportunities, as well as perceived organisational support, explained the most variance. Various recommendations were made for the context of the South African Police Service, and also for future research. The organisation is advised to apply the results from this study to adjust policies and practices in such a way that employees will experience higher levels of subjective career success. Furthermore, career discussions may be held in order to enhance opportunities for career planning and provide opportunities for relevant training and development that are aligned to the business drive of the organisation. Interventions that will increase perceived organisational support and congenial relationships could be implemented and maintained. More research on the two subjective career success measures is needed, in order to 1) verify the validity of the Perceived Career Success Scale and 2) to apply it and the Life-success Measures Scale to other sectors and industries. It is also recommended that a more heterogeneous sample be utilised as well as longitudinal research designs in future research studies relating to subjective career success. / MCom (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Subjective career success has been the focus of research for a number of years. The term refers to the individual’s personal perception of how successful he/she is in a career. In many qualitative studies subjective career success is found to be a multi-dimensional construct. Although there are quantitative instruments that measure subjective career success, they do not measure the construct on multiple dimensions. The first objective of this study was to determine the validity and reliability of two existing multi-dimensional instruments that measure subjective career success, especially in the South African context. These are the Perceived Career Success Scale (Gattiker & Larwood, 1986) and the Life-success Measures Scale (Parker & Chusmir, 1992). The second objective was to determine which predictors can be found for subjective career success. Literature differentiates between three broad categories of variables, namely demographical (gender, language group, marital status and age), human capital (job tenure, level of education and career planning) and organisational variables (perceived organisational support and training, and development opportunities). A convenience sample of 754 personnel from the South African Police Service was taken at stations and training colleges in the Free State, South Africa. A measuring battery that assesses subjective career success was used. This entailed the Perceived Career Success Scale as well as the Life-success Measures Scale. In addition, questions were used to ascertain the three types of variables demographic (gender, language group, marital status and age), human capital (job tenure, level of education and career planning) and organisational variables (perceived organisational support and training and development opportunities). The following statistical analyses were done to analyse the data: descriptive and inferential statistics, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, product-moment correlations, confirmatory factor analysis and linear regression analysis. The results of these analyses indicate that subjective career success is indeed a multi-dimensional construct. Three dimensions (job success, interpersonal success and non-organisational success) of the Perceived Career Success Scale (Gattiker & Larwood, 1986) could be established. These dimensions yielded good reliability, but the validity remained problematic. In contrast, the Life-success Measures Scale (Parker & Chusmir, 1992) yielded four dimensions (security, social contribution, professional fulfilment and personal fulfilment). The psychometric properties of these dimensions were acceptable and showed to be reliable and valid. In addition, various demographic, human capital and organisational variables were found to be predictors of subjective career success. Career planning, training and developmental opportunities, as well as perceived organisational support, explained the most variance. Various recommendations were made for the context of the South African Police Service, and also for future research. The organisation is advised to apply the results from this study to adjust policies and practices in such a way that employees will experience higher levels of subjective career success. Furthermore, career discussions may be held in order to enhance opportunities for career planning and provide opportunities for relevant training and development that are aligned to the business drive of the organisation. Interventions that will increase perceived organisational support and congenial relationships could be implemented and maintained. More research on the two subjective career success measures is needed, in order to 1) verify the validity of the Perceived Career Success Scale and 2) to apply it and the Life-success Measures Scale to other sectors and industries. It is also recommended that a more heterogeneous sample be utilised as well as longitudinal research designs in future research studies relating to subjective career success. / MCom (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Text in Afrikaans, abstract in Afrikaans and English / Die doel van hierdie navorsing was om te bepaal of betekenisvolle verskille bestaan tussen werknemerdoeltreffendheid en persepsies van gehalte van werklewe van bemagtigde en niebemagtigde skofwerkers in die Suid-Afrikaanse petrochemiese bedryf. Skofwerknavorsing het gedurende die afgelope dekade internasionaal toegeneem. Hiermee gepaardgaande het verskeie intervensies ontstaan om die doeltreffendheid van skofwerkers en hulle gehalte van werklewe te bevorder. Deur gebruik te maak van 'n gekombineerde vraelys ("Standard Shiftwork Index") en werklike data ten opsigte van afwesigheid en prestasiebeoordelings, is 'n steekproef van 102 gevalle geanaliseer. 'n 90 persent betroubaarheidinterval is gebruik om waardes ten opsigte van elke veranderlike te bepaal. Daar is bevind dat werknemerbemagtiging weinig invloed het op skofwerkers se werkbywoning. Daar is ook gevind dat werknemerbemagtiging nie lei tot 'n meer positiewe persepsie, by toesighouers, van skofwerkwerkers se algemene werkprestasie nie. Daar is egter bevind dat skofwerkers se persepsies van hulle gehalte van werklewe, ten opsigte van werkdissatisfaksie, chroniese vermoeidheid en tevredenheid met sosiale omstandighede, wel positiefbelnvloed word deur werknemerbemagtiging. Aanbevelings is gemaak ten opsigte van die aanwending van werknemerbemagtiging, as intervensie in skofwerkomgewings, asook vir verdere skofwerknavorsing in Suid-Afrika. / The purpose of this research was to determine if significant differences exist between employee effectiveness and perceptions of quality of working life of empowered and non-empowered shiftworkers in the South-African petrochemical industry. By using the Standard Shiftwork Index and real absenteeism and appraisal data, a sample of 102 cases was analysed. A 90 percent confidence interval was used to determine t-values for variables. It was found that empowerment has little influence on the work attendance of shiftworkers and that empowerment does not lead to more positive perceptions of general work performance of shiftworkers, among their supervisors. It was, however, found that shiftworkers' perceptions of their quality of working life are improved by empowerment in respect of work dissatisfaction, chronic fatigue and satisfaction with social circumstances. Suggestions were made concerning the use of empowerment, as an intervention, in shiftwork environments and for future shiftwork research in South-Africa. / Industrial & Organisational Psychology / M.Comm. (Bedryfsielkunde)

South African adolescents are more likely to participate in high-risk behaviours, because they are exposed to high-risk environments that have a negative impact on them. The choices that adolescents make during this explorative life stage will influence and determine certain outcomes of their adult lives. Therefore, it is crucial to improve adolescents’ psychological well-being, as they are the future generation adults. Adolescents with behaviour problems form a unique population who do not respond effectively to traditional therapy, and researchers are continuously searching for more effective ways to reach this population. Equine-assisted therapy (EAT) is an intervention that has been proven to be effective with this population and to provide better outcomes than traditional psychotherapy. Although the value and positive effects of EAT has been proven, there is a gap in the literature concerning research on this topic, especially with regard to research conducted by means of quantitative methods. The overarching goal of this study was to evaluate and refine an EAT programme aimed at improving the psychological well-being of boys in a school of industry. This goal was attained by utilising a quantitative, experimental research design. The Solomon four-group design was applied, because it effectively controls pre-test sensitisation and provides the best control against threats to internal validity. The sample was selected from a school of industry near Bloemfontein, which provides residence to a group of adolescent boys who display behaviour problems. The 40 boys (N = 40) included in the sample were divided into two experimental groups of 10 boys each and two control groups of 10 boys each. During the course of the study, one of the boys withdrew and the sample was reduced to 39 boys. The programme was administered to the boys in the experimental groups. Before the programme commenced, one of the experimental groups and one of the control groups completed the pre-test. The psychometric instruments used were a biographical questionnaire, the Satisfaction with Life Scale and the Coping Orientations to the Problems Experienced Questionnaire. The boys then completed the EAT programme which consisted of eight sessions, each with its own outcomes and designed to improve subjective well-being and coping. After completion of the programme, all four groups completed the post-test consisting of the same psychometric instruments as the pre-test. The results showed that the programme significantly improved the boys’ subjective well-being. The boys’ problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping and dysfunctional coping were also increased significantly. These improvements can be attributed directly to the programme, because pre-test sensitisation was controlled. The study found that the EAT programme had a significant positive effect on the boys’ subjective well-being and coping. The conclusion can be drawn that the programme significantly improved the boys’ psychological well-being. The programme was evaluated and refined, and recommendations were made for its future use. / PhD (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014