Master of Science / Department of Human Nutrition / Edgar Chambers IV / The sensory properties of coffee are impacted by various factors such as coffee origin, degree of roasting and ways of consumption. This study analyzed impact of ways of consumption (1. consumption temperatures and 2. milk and/or sugar additions) on 38 flavor attributes of hot brewed coffee by descriptive sensory analysis. Different type of coffee samples (2 Arabica, 1 Robusta, and 1 Blended) were consumed at 50ºC, 60ºC and 70ºC. Results showed significant interactions of temperature and coffee samples for coffee like attributes such as coffee identity, fidelity, and blended. The consumption temperature played a major impact on perceived flavor attributes of coffee and influenced Arabica, Blended and Robusta coffee differently and we have to consider that when blending coffees. Coffee identity and fidelity significantly increased with an increase in all temperatures, but most attributes showed significantly higher intensity only for samples served at 70ºC regardless of insignificant differences at 60ºC and 50ºC. Three coffee samples (light, medium, and dark roasted) were tasted with and without milk or sugar. The data were submitted to principal component analysis and cluster analysis. The first 2 PC’s allowed to separate coffee into three categories and CA revealed similar distribution of coffee into three clusters. Coffee like attributes were seemed to play a more important role in the determination of clusters as the addition of milk and sugar decreased the intensity of key flavor attributes such as coffee identity, bitterness, fidelity, roasted, blended, and longevity. The flavor attributes of dark roasted coffee was more impacted by the addition of milk and sugar. Results suggested that the effect of addition (milk and/or sugar) is correlated to the degree of roasting and we have to consider the milk and sugar additions according to degree of roasting.

Master of Science / Food Science Institute / Fadi M. Aramouni / With the recent new food labeling guidelines requiring that added sugars be listed on nutrition labels, both consumers and the food industry are concerned about sugar and added sugars in food. The literature review in this report evaluated studies that focused on a reduction of sugar in chocolate, a popular food that many people associate with containing sugar. The studies reviewed here included reduced sugar or sugar-free chocolates that used polyols, rare sugar, inulin, and high-potency sweeteners. Rare sugars are monosaccharides and their derivatives, which are rarely found in nature. One rare sugar that was included in the literature review was D-allulose. The review also looked at models of reducing added sugars in foods. From the review, a study was conducted to look at different sweeteners in dark chocolate. In this study, agave and fructose were compared to the control (sucrose); the reduction of sucrose in samples in this study was 30% from the control. The study evaluated how the sweeteners affect the physical attributes of dark chocolate to determine the best sweetener to use to reduce sucrose and further reduce added sugar. The study found that lowering sugar for taste is not the only aspect a product developer must consider when reducing sugar in a product; different sweeteners also affect physical parameters in chocolate. For example, the moisture and particle size distribution affect the physical properties of the chocolate. The moisture in the agave-sweetened chocolate bar was 54.54% higher than in the sucrose-sweetened chocolate bar; the agave-sweetened bar was 41.67% higher in moisture than the fructose-sweetened chocolate bar. The higher moisture of the agave-sweetened chocolate samples resulted in higher agglomeration; moisture created sticky patches that induced agglomeration and a higher reduction of particles. The hygroscopicity of agave affected the rheology of the chocolate because higher agglomeration of particles leads to higher yield values in the agave-sweetened chocolate. The smaller particles have more surface area to get coated in fat, which affects rheology. The sucrose-sweetened chocolate treatment, which had larger particles and lower surface area, had a higher viscosity. However, the agave- and fructose-sweetened chocolates made in this study can be considered standard of identity while non-nutritive sweeteners would not be. When developing new chocolate formulations with reduced sugar, the scientist needs take the physical parameters of the non-sucrose sugars used into account.

M.Tech. (Chemical Engineering) / Laboratory and pilot plant trials were carried out on a modified carbonatation process to reduce overall refining costs. Sulphur dioxide dosages of less than 250ppm on brix were added to carbonatated liquors. The resultant filtered liquor had an additional 4,6% colour removal and a 10% ash gain relative to factory liquors. Reducing sugars and filterability were not affected. Additional colour removal of 14% was noted in the affinated crystal colour of crystals grown from the resultant brown liquors in the SMRI pilot pan. The failure of the combined carbonatation - sulphitationLaboratory and pilot plant trials were carried out on a modified carbonatation process to reduce overall refining costs. Sulphur dioxide dosages of less than 250ppm on brix were added to carbonatated liquors. The resultant filtered liquor had an additional 4,6% colour removal and a 10% ash gain relative to factory liquors. Reducing sugars and filterability were not affected. Additional colour removal of 14% was noted in the affinated crystal colour of crystals grown from the resultant brown liquors in the SMRI pilot pan. The failure of the combined carbonatation - sulphitation process to remove the ash that the carbonatation process does, negates the cost benefits of the additional colour removals. The reason for the ash "gain" is that the sulphur dioxide partially dissolves the calcium carbonate, releasing the adsorbed ash and colour. The colour is then adsorbed onto the calcium sulphite. process to remove the ash that the carbonatation process does, negates the cost benefits of the additional colour removals.

Sugar chlorosulphates of furanoid and pyranoid derivatives bearing chlorosulphonyloxy groups at primary and secondary positions, were synthesized and examined mainly with a view to determine their extent of reactivity in terms of nucleophilic substitution reactions, especially with azide. Inversion of configuration occurred at reactive chiral centres, whereas intermediate azidosulphonyloxy derivatives (azidosulphates) were formed via S-Cℓ bond fission of the chlorosulphonyloxy group at less reactive primary or secondary centres, e.g. 1,2:3,4-diO̲isopropyl idene-α-D-galactopyranose 6-azidosulphate, 1,2-O̲isopropylidenea- D-xylofuranose 3-azidosulphate and 1,2:5,6-di-O̲-isopropyl idene-α-Dglucofuranose 3-azidosulphate. 1,2:3,4-Di-O̲-isopropylidene-α-Dgalactopyranose 6-azidosulphate ultimately afforded the 6-azidodeoxy derivative probably by an SN2 mechanism. Some SNi characteristics were,however, evident when substitution occurred at a reactive primary centre (e.g. methyl 2,3,4-tri-O̲-methyla- D-glucopyranoside 6-chlorosulphate), as the 6-azidodeoxy derivative obtained, appeared to be contaminated with a trace amount of the corresponding 6-chlorodeoxy sugar, which had presumably formed via an internal SNi mechanism, while no intermediate azidosulphonyloxy derivative was isolated. In another study, the reaction pathways for the synthesis of benzylated chlorodeoxy sugars having potential biological properties as exemplified by the multivalent drug, tribenoside, were also investigated

A soluble DPNH-nitrate reductase (NRase) of the sugar beet has been purified and characterized. The occurrence of NO₂⁻ as an end product and the insensitivity of the enzyme to oxygen indicate that the sugar beet NRase is of the nitrate assimilation type. The enzyme was not associated with any cell particle and all NRase activity present in the homogenate of sugar beet leaves was recovered in the 20,000 x g supernatant. A sixtyfold purification was accomplished by ammonium sulfate precipitation followed by adsorption on calcium phosphate gel. At room temperatures and higher the enzyme was heat labile, but was relatively stable at -15°C. Dialysis at 4° C. did not result in an appreciable loss of activity. The optimum pH was 7.0. The NRase was sensitive to heavy metal inhibitors but it was not possible to show that Mo was the specific prosthetic metal. It was demonstrated, however, that chemically reduced Mo could serve as an electron donor. Thus Mo may be a cofactor for the enzyme. The reversal of p-chloromercuribenzoate inhibition by the sulfhydryl reagents glutathione and cysteine, coupled with strong inhibition by iodoacetate and cupric sulfate indicated the sulfhydryl nature of the enzyme. The partially purified NRase was stimulated to a considerably greater degree by FAD than by FMN. Rf values and co-chromatography in different solvents showed that a substance liberated from the enzyme preparation by acid and heat was not riboflavin or FMN but very probably was FAD. It is suggested that, in common with other assimilatory NRases of higher plants, the flavin nucleotide prosthetic group of sugar beet NRase is FAD. The presence of two NRases in the sugar beet was indicated by the fact that the crude "enzyme" was stimulated to the same extent by the addition of DPNH or TPNH, that the ratio of activities resulting from the addition of the two pyridine nucleotides changed with the degree of purity of the enzyme, and that the enzyme finally obtained by calcium phosphate gel adsorption and elution was DPNH-specific. That purification was not complete was shown by the presence of DPNH-quinone reductase and DPNH-cytochrome c reductase activity in the NRase preparation. A low NRase activity and a high nitrate content were measured in sugar beet leaves during growth in darkness. The reverse occurred in light. It is suggested that the diurnal variation in NRase activity may be the result of the fall of leaf tissue pH during darkness and its rise to approximate the enzyme's optimum pH in light. The possible participation of the NRase in a flavin nucleotide-catalyzed enzymatic photoreduction of nitrate was indicated by the coupling of photoreduction of FAD with the reduction of nitrate by NRase. / Science, Faculty of / Botany, Department of / Graduate

Detritylation of tri-O-trityl-penta-O-acetyl sucrose with catalytic bydrogenolysis or graded hydrolysis with aqueous acetic acid gave in yields up to 60% a new crystal line penta-O-acetyl sucrose derivative. Methylation of the pentaacetate with the Purdie reagents, followed by deacetylation and chromatographic purification gave a sirupy tri-O-methyl sucrose which was shown to be 1’, 4, 6' -tri-O-methyl sucrose by periodate oxidation and by hydrolysis to equal parts of 4-O-methyl-D-glucose and 1, 6-di-O-methyl-D-fructose. The glucose derivative was identified by paper chromatography, specific rotation and by conversion to the known, crystalline osazone, and the structure of the new sirupy 1, 6-di-O-raethyl-D-fruetose was established by analysis, periodate oxidation, paper chromatographic behavior and the specific rotation. Deacetylation of tri-0-trityl-penta-O-acetyl sucrose gave an amorphous tri-O-trityl sucrose and methylation of this compound with the Purdie reagents, followed by detritylation with aqueous acetic acid gave a sirupy penta-O-methyl sucrose derivative, which was identified as 2, 3, 3', 4, 4’ -penta-O-methyl sucrose by hydrolysis to equal parts of the known 2, 3, k -tri-O-methyl-D-glueose and 3, 4 -di-O-methyl-D-fructose. It was therefore established that the trityl groups in the original tri-O-trityl-penta-O-acetyl sucrose occupied the three primary positions (1’, 6 and 6’) in the sucrose molecule and that acetyl migration from C4 to C6 in the glucose moiety had occurred during the synthesis of the tri-O-methyl sucrose. Vinylation of 1: 2-3: 4-di-O-isopropylidene-D-galactose with vinyl acetate after the method of Adelraan gave after catalytic hydrogenation followed by removal of the acetone groups a 0.7% yield of sirupy 6-O-ethyl-D-galactose. The new galactose derivative was identified by comparison with an authentic sample synthesized by direct ethylation of 1; 2 -3: 4 -di-O-iaopropylidene-D-galactose. Preliminary studies of the vinylation of the new crystalline penta-O-acetyl sucrose are reported. The action of Dowex I on several acetates of non-reducing carbohydrates was found to result in deacetylation in nearly quantitative yields. / Science, Faculty of / Chemistry, Department of / Graduate

Sugar beet seed, S.K.E.-R-11, was obtained from the B.C. Sugar Co. Ltd., Vancouver, B.C. and germinated in flats in a greenhouse on January 29, 1954. The beet plants were transplanted to a fertilized field on May 2, 1954. A randomized lot design was chosen in order to reduce error caused by soil differences, moisture variations, and pH etc. Thirty groups of 10 beets per group were selected from the randomized lot. The leaves of 6 groups were frozen with dry ice and the other groups were defoliated, decrowned continuously defoliated, or used as controls. The regrowth on the continuously defoliated beets was removed every two days following initial defoliation. Defoliation was effected by slicing off the leaves one-quarter inch above the crown. Decrowning was done by cutting the beet root transversely just beneath the outer ring of meristematic buds. The: defoliated beets were used to serve as a parallel to the destruction of leaves by freezing. The continuously defoliated beets were a check on the defoliated beets, where it was considered that photosynthesis in the new regrowth leaves would partially offset a large sugar loss in the root. Two experiments were completed. The first experiment and treatment began on August 16, 1954; the second on October 13, 1954. Harvest times were at the 1, 4, 8, 11, 16 and 20 day intervals following Aug. 16, and at the 1, 4, 8, 12 and 15 day intervals following October 13. Enzyme activity only was determined in the second experiment. 'The fresh leaf weights of the defoliated and control beets were recorded and later compared with leaf regrowth weights and sugar content. The beets were harvested in groups of 10 beets all treated in one specific manner. Ten beets of each group were removed from the soil and each beet sliced diagonally across the centre region. The sections were washed in water and pulped in a meat grinder giving approximately 2000 grams of pulp from 10 sections. Three hundred grams of pulp was used in dry weight -determination. Forty grams of fresh pulp from each group was blended for 2 minutes with 100 ml. of distilled ice water in a Waring blendor. The solution was filtered through broadcloth and used in enzyme activity measurements. In the second experiment, 47 grams of pulp was blended with 100 ml. of distilled ice water for 2 minutes. The crown portion of the root was used in the estimation of invertase activity. A check on the sampling method showed that the 40-gram aliquot of pulp used for enzyme determination represented the sample. Sucrose percent and phosphatase activity were used as the basis of this test. The fresh pulp was analyzed for sucrose, invert sugars, dry weight, catalase, phosphorylase, beta-amylase and invertase enzyme activities. The dried pulp was ground to 40-mesh and analyzed for total nitrogen, sucrose and invert sugars. Insoluble nitrogen and starch-dextrins were determined in ethanol extracted pulp. Duplicate determinations were made on each sample. Percentages are based on both dry and fresh weights and given as T/C values. Phosphorylase, phosphatase, catalase, beta-amylase, invertase were measured. Sucrose, invert sugars, starch-dextrin3, and total and insoluble nitrogen were also determined. The.highest amount of leaf regrowth occurred 4-17 days after freezing. The results indicated no relation between leaf weights and sucrose content nor between root weight and sugar content in mature beets. The percent dry weight decreased in all treated beets from the 1st to the 20th days after treatment. This decrease is likely a result of sucrose loss and an increased hydration in the beet root. Sucrose percent based on dry and fresh weight generally decreased following all- treatments. A positive correlation between percent sugar loss and leaf regrowth is suggested. There was an increase in the amount of reducing sugars after foliar loss. The suggestion has been made that the monosaccharide sugars are utilized almost immediately in leaf regrowth or in (increased respiration in the beet crown. The percent, of starch-dextrins tended to decrease in the treated beets but this is most likely not significant. The decrease in percent of total carbohydrates found follows the fact that sucrose disappears. Total carbohydrate estimations seem to provide a reasonable basis for determining the amount of sucrose loss. Total and soluble nitrogen values decreased to the 8th day after treatment and increased after this time. Insoluble nitrogen results were generally inconclusive. The results suggested a translocation of soluble nitrogenous compounds to the beet crown where active growth was occurring. The apparent activity of phosphorylase decreased with time in all treatments. Starch phosphorylase in sugar beet root likely has a minor role in total carbohydrate metabolism of the tissue. Phosphatase activity decreased to -the 11th day in every treatment except decrowned. The reason for a lower apparent phosphatase activity in treated beets in this experiment is not known. It may be associated with an increase respiratory rate. There were no significant changes in beta-amylase activity and no correlation could be found between starch-dextrin content and amylase activity. Catalase activity based on monomolecular values, decreased with time after treatment. A decrease in catalase activity might be expected in the mature, cells of the root as the respiration rate decreases with age. A correlation between invertase activity and sucrose loss was indicated in the frozen and decrowned beets but not in the defoliated beets. From the results of this experiment it seems unlikely that invertase is alone responsible for a sucrose decrease. The results found in this experiment were largely negative. / Science, Faculty of / Botany, Department of / Graduate

Metabolic inhibitors and growth regulators were used in an attempt to control the growth of sugar beet plants at the time of "ripening" of the roots. Maleic hydrazide (MH), pyrocatechol (PC), and vanadium sulphate (VS) were found to be most effective in controlling growth regardless of the age of the plants. The solutions containing MH, PC, or VS were applied to the foliage of 4.5-month-old plants and the effects on leaf expansion and content of sucrose, reducing sugars, nitrite, nitrate, ammonia, amino acid, protein and total nitrogen were determined 7, 14, and 21 days after treatment. The rate of photosynthesis and respiration and the activity of nitrate reductase, transaminase, invertase, adenosine triphosphatase (ATP-ase), glucose-1-, glucose-6-, fructose-6-phosphatase, uridine diphosphate glucose pyrophosphorylase (UDPG-pyrophosphorylase), sucrose synthetase and sucrose phosphate synthetase was measured. Compared with untreated plants, with few exceptions, all treatments affected the growth; the chemical compositions the rate of photosynthesis and respiration, and the activities of enzymes measured, in a similar manner. Growth of the plants was determined by measuring the leaf area. MH, PC, and VS significantly inhibited growth of leaves under both "summer" and "fall" conditions. In the treated plants, the percentage reducing sugars, based on fresh weight of the root, decreased and percentage sucrose increased steadily. Application of MH, PC, and VS resulted in a significant decrease in nitrite and an increase in nitrate content of roots. Ammonium nitrogen of the plants treated with MH was more than that of the untreated plants on the 7th, 14th, and 21st day after treatment. Plants reacted with PC and VS had a lower ammonium content on the 7th and the 14th day but more on the 21st day. The soluble amino acid content of the roots of MH-treated plants was higher than that of the controls. PC-treated plants had a lower amino acid content on the 7th day but a higher content on the 14th and 21st day. VS caused a reduction in amino acid content of the roots on all dates of harvest. The rate of photosynthesis was measured by infrared technique. MH and VS caused a stimulation in the rate of net C0₂ assimilation, however, PC inhibited the rate of net C0₂ assimilation on the 7th day after treatment. The rate of respiration of the storage roots, measured by the Warburg technique, was lower than that of the control plants in the case of MH-and VS-treated plants and it was higher in the PC-treated plants. The results indicated that the application of MH, PC, and VS caused significant reduction in the activity of nitrate reductase, transaminase, inver-tase, ATP-ase, glucose-1-, glucose-6-, and fructose-6-phosphatase. These treatments also resulted in the stimulation of the activity of UDPG-pyrophos-phorylase, sucrose synthetase and sucrose phosphate synthetase. The inhibition of growth by MH, PC, and VS is discussed on the bases of the reductions in the activities of invertase, nitrate reductase, and transaminase. The increase in sucrose content of the roots is explained on the bases of low invertase and high sucrose synthetase and sucrose phosphate synthetase activities in the treated plants. The possible participation of the phosphatases in the regulation of sucrose biosynthesis is indicated by the negative correlations between the activities of phosphatases and sucrose phosphate synthetase. / Science, Faculty of / Botany, Department of / Graduate

Some of the factors that influence the blood reducing sugar level in the black-tailed deer Odeeoileus hemionus columbianus (Richardson) (Vancouver Island genotype), have been investigated. The distribution of reducing sugar in the blood of these animals was also examined. It was found that: feed intake during the hour preceeding blood letting, short periods of fast, nature of the feed, and sex of the animal apparently have no effect on the level of blood reducing sugar in deer. Blood samples taken in the evening generally had a higher reducing sugar level than those taken earlier in the day. The means used to restrain the animals during the blood letting procedure was also found to have a marked influence on the level of blood reducing sugar. Deer restrained by physical force exhibited significantly higher and more variable blood sugar levels than those immobilized with succinylcholine. The length of time required to draw a blood sample from an animal also influenced the blood sugar level. The longer the time to let a sample, the higher the blood sugar level in the sample. The results indicate that the degree of excitement, fear, and pain experienced by the animals preceeding and during the blood letting procedure was the principal cause of variability found in the level of blood reducing sugar. No reducing sugar could be detected in the erythrocytes of these deer. / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate

There are three natural openings in a mature sugarbeet fruit which serve as avenues of entry for microorganisms: 1) the basal pore which contains dried parenchyma and vascular tissue and is the point where the flower was connected to the stalk; 2) the apical pore where the style was inserted; and 3) the peripheral zone of dehiscence where the operculum separates from the fruit cavity wall during germination. The apical pore was first described in this study. Scanning electron microscopy of the naturally infected fruits showed, for the first time, hyphal penetration through both the basal pore and the peripheral zone. Examination of sugarbeet flowers artificially infected with Phoma betae also showed fungal penetration through the apical pore. Dense hyphal growth was associated with stigmal lobes and ungerminated pollen grains. Fungal growth apparently was stimulated by excretions from the stigma. Penetration of the fruit cavity wall and the operculum would render the fungus inaccessible to protectant fungicides and explains why the most successful seed treatments for P. betae have included volatile mercury fungicides or seed soak in thiram. Such treatment allows direct contact between the toxin and the pathogen. / North Dakota State University (NDSU) / Kiesling, Richard L.