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The rôle of government in tertiary education : the case of South Africa since 1945 / John DreijmanisDreijmanis, John January 1985 (has links)
Although the South African government plays an increasing role in tertiary
education, its involvement has not received the attention that it
deserves. The goals of tertiary education are multi-dimensional at the
individual and societal levels, but the guiding paradigm was viewing it
in relation to the manpower and socio-economic needs of the country.
This meant analysing how the government attempted to deal with these
needs, especially in certain key professions, such as engineering and
teaching.
The following hypotheses were tested:
HYPOTHESIS 1
The prestige of the universities within the tertiary education system will
persist for a longer period than the economic rewards of its graduates
alone would justify.
HYPOTHESIS 2
The expansion from elite to mass tertiary education will lead to greater
dependence on government funding and increased need for control,
co-ordination, and national standards.
HYPOTHESIS 3
Governments will underinvest in technical education.
HYPOTHESIS 4
In "bad" economic times tertiary education enrolments will decline.
HYPOTHESIS 5
Continuing university prestige will cause the college of advanced technical
education (CATE) and technikon enrolments and diplomas and certificates
awarded to lag behind university degrees and diplomas.
HYPOTHESIS 6
In "bad" economic times CATE and technikon technical enrolments will
decline.
HYPOTHESIS 7
Fears of surpluses of university graduates, especially in the arts, on the
one hand and shortages of certain types of manpower on the other hand
will lead to government efforts to redress the balance.
HYPOTHESIS 8
There will be significant limitations on government efforts to create the
desired numbers and types of skilled manpower, for interventionism of
this sort will run counter to individual aspirations.
Tertiary education for all of the population groups since 1945 was covered.
Whilst there are some gaps in the available enrolment and expenditure
data, they do not invalidate the conclusions.
In a plural society with deep cleavages amongst the four main population
groups and lesser intra group cleavages, separate education systems
developed. All population groups value academic education very highly,
especially the blacks. The biases in favour of an academic education
are deep rooted and multi-faceted, going back to the colonial times.
Within the South African context, there are also political, socio-economic,
educational, and vocational factors reinforcing these biases.
Ever since the creation of the Union in 1910 there has been an ongoing
debate and controversy about the division of authority in education between
the central government and the provincial governments. This has
been especially the case with the colleges of education for the whites.
It Will soon end, however, when the central government will take them
over, as well as primary and secondary schools for the whites.
Black education was taken over from provincial governments in 1954 up
to the university level as part of the separate development policy. The
same was done in the case of coloured education in 1967, and by 1970
with Indian education. In 1960 the University College of Fort Hare was
taken over by the central government, and the University Colleges of
Zululand and North were also created in 1959 for specific ethnic groups.
Since then all of the non-white universities have experienced student
unrest, especially the black ones. The government policy had the unintended
consequence of contributing to their politicisation.
The administrative structure is a complex one. There is one education
ministry for each major population group, plus one dealing with general
education matters. An elaborate statutory advisory system of boards,
committees, and councils exists. There is, however, no body offering
advice to the government on tertiary education as a whole for any of the
population groups.
The current expenditures for universities from 1953 until 1985 were under
the Holloway formula, consisting of the basic subsidy, standard provision,
cost of living allowance, free income, and capital expenditure.
The new formula provides more emphasis upon outputs, with half of the
funds being made available in June and the other half in December.
Those in the natural sciences also receive somewhat more than those in
the human sciences.
University enrolments have grown much faster than the college of education,
CATE, and technikon enrolments. Thus, the first part of Hypothesis
1 was substantiated. One of the consequences of •this
phenomenal growth has been a significant failure rate, especially amongst
first-year university students. This great expansion of tertiary education
has led to greater dependence on government funding, as predicted
by Hypothesis 2. Hypothesis 3 also holds true, for there was underinvestment
in CATE and technikon education for a long time as opposed
to university education, although this is no longer true for the
non-whites. Hypotheses 4 and 6 lacked significant supporting evidence
and thus they were not confirmed. Tertiary education overall enrolments
are not normally economically determined to any marked degree. Hypothesis
5 was upheld, because CATE and technikon enrolments and
certificates and diplomas awarded as contrasted to university enrolments
and degrees and diplomas awarded have lagged behind total awards and
constitute a declining proportion. The last part of Hypothesis 1 is
confirmed; technicians earn almost as much as teachers and sometimes
even more than university graduates. Yet, they lack their prestige.
Human capital theory, beginning in the 1960s, provided the theoretical
justification for the great expansion of tertiary education. It maintained
that investment in education will yield rich dividends to the individuals
and to the economy in terms of higher growth. Since the early 1970s,
however, it has come under increasing criticism from social scientists.
Many maintained that there might be a declining positive correlation between
education enrolments and growth rates and even negative correlations.
Some even maintained that there are social limits to growth,
including in education.
Developing surpluses of university graduates abroad, continuing shortages
of engineers and technicians, and the rising number of secondary
school graduates, most of them with an academic education, led to government
concern and the creation of the De Lange Commission. The
government tried to redress the balance between university graduates in
general and the shortages of technical and teaching personnel in particular.
The De Lange Commission maintained that education must be linked
to the manpower and economic development needs of the country. Earlier
government commissions addressed the problems of technical and teaching
personnel shortages. Many of their recommendations were implemented,
but shortages of technical personnel have remained. Hypothesis 7 was
thus confirmed.
The government has tried to pursue the goals of manpower and economic
development needs of the country, but as hypothesised (Hypothesis 8)
it has run into difficulties because its goals run counter to individual
aspirations. Many students pursue tertiary education for purely
utilitarian or socio-economic reasons. There is also a minority which
desires it for self-development or the advancement of knowledge regardless
of the economic consequences. Moreover, the prestige of university
education creates a strong social demand for it.
Supply and demand projections for engineers and technicians indicate
continuing shortages in the short- range at least. As far as the teachers
are concerned, there will be enough white, coloured, and Indian ones,
perhaps even some surpluses in the medium-range. In the case of the
blacks, shortages will remain.
The number of non-white university students by 1990 might equal white
university students. The white population alone is no longer able to
provide sufficient numbers of high level manpower. In the short-range
the demand for university graduates looks good, but this does not mean
that there will be no problems in the long-range. Unemployment of
university graduates has been low, but underemployment, especially in
the arts, has been far more significant. There will be increasing numbers
of underemployed university graduates, with the potential for political
discontent amongst highly educated and frustrated people, especially the
blacks.
Possible solutions to engineer and technician shortages include the
granting of degrees by technikons, validation of technikon courses, and
the awarding of degrees by an external authority. In the case of
teachers, increasing their renumeration and the merging of the colleges
of education with the university faculties of education would result in
increasing their prestige and attracting more men to the profession.
As far as unemployment and underemployment of university graduates
are concerned, the solution lies in relating individual actions to societal
needs. Incentives or disincentives of one sort or another appear to be
necessary, such as differentiated fee structures and the limiting of
enrolments in those disciplines which produce labour market surpluses.
The government could also provide employment for unemployed university
graduates and encourage the private sector to do the same. All of these
solutions have disadvantages as well as advantages, but in the long run
they have the potential of avoiding even more serious consequences. / Proefskrif (DPhil)--PU vir CHO, 1986
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Skoolvoorligting in Nederland en die implikasies daarvan vir die RSA / Almero KokKok, Almero January 1989 (has links)
Effective provision of school counselling as an integrated part
of the overall educational system of South Africa is essential.
Counselling in its present form has not been clearly defined yet.
This fact can lead to possible generalization and superficiality
in the presentation thereof.
In this study an effort was made to give an account of the present
educational and school counselling system of the Netherlands,
by means of the descriptive method.
The school counselling service in the abovementioned country was
analised as follows at the onset a few important contextual
concepts were defined. School counselling was then discussed as
it exists in the different school contexts.
was on the school counselling post itself.
Finally the emphasis
The various aspects
of the school counsellor's work were discussed.
The school counselling system of the Republic of South Africa
was described next, with specific reference to the current
manifestation of counselling as implemented by the Transvaal
Education Department.
A comparison was drawn between the educational and school
counselling service of the Netherlands and that of the RSA. A
list of requirements to which a school counselling service must
comply, was also compiled. By using these requirements as
guidelines, a few problem areas, as well as positive attributes
of school counselling in the RSA, were identified.
New insight gained after the study of the school counselling
service of the Netherlands and the identification of certain
problem areas or deficiencies in that of the RSA, led to a few
recommendations concerning school counselling in the RSA. / Skripsie (MEd)--PU vir CHO, 1990
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Tegniese onderwys op sekondêre skoolvlak vir Blankes in Suid-Afrika tot 1974 / Hennie J. SteynSteyn, Hennie J January 1977 (has links)
This study is aimed at indicating the development
of technical education at secondary level from 1925
to 1974. Attention is paid to the development of
technical education as it is presented at full-time
day-schools.
For the purpose of this research, technical education is defined as: a preparatory study towards
an apprenticeship or a further study in technology,
while the value of general-formative education is
continually stressed.
Chapter 2 deals with the control and judicial foundations of technical education. This aspect is
treated in three sub-sections namely:
* technical education under provincial control
before 1925:
* technical education under control of the
Union Department of Education and the Department of Education, Arts and Science (1925-1967) and
* technical education, once more the responsibility of the provincial departments of education (1968-1974).
Chapter 3 shows the composition of the curricula
for technical schools during 1925-1974 and how it
was adapted periodically to continually changing
industrial circumstances. In an effort to provide
educated technically trained manpower, pupils are
educated in the more general scientific principles
which are fundamental to each trade.
The emphasis, however. did not only fall on the
technological training. Since 1925 generally-formative education had already been offered at technical schools.
Chapter 4 deals with the entrance requirements for,
as well as the number of pupils in technical high
schools. This chapter also tries to explain the
manner in which pupils are affected by stipulations
concerning compulsory education.
chapter 5 deals with the financial implications
concerning technical education. The financial burden has been the major factor which impeded the
realistic development of technical education. It
was also one of the most important factors which
determined the place of technical schools in the
South African school system.
Attention is paid in Chapter 6 to the training of
teachers for the technical schools and the training
of personnel for the workshops at technical schools
is stressed, as this kind of education is peculiar
to the technical schools.
Chapter 7 gives a short summary of the entire study. / Thesis (MEd)--PU vir CHO
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'n Prinsipiele en empiriese ondersoek na die huidige stand van godsdiensonderrig in die Transvaalse sekondêre skole / Hendrik Christoffel StanderStander, Hendrik Christoffel January 1973 (has links)
In this study an effort has been made to establish the current
position of religious instruction in the Afrikaans medium secondary schools of the Transvaal.
In the modern world with its phenomenal development in every
imaginable field it is of the utmost importance that the pupil
should have the Word of God as a directing principle. The Word
of God is the only anchor to keep the faltering modern man steady.
The question arises whether religious training in our schools
succeeds in accomplishing this great task, since it is God's
command that we educate our children in the fear of God. Since
the earliest days of its settlement, the young and growing nation
on the African continent has realised that its survival is in the
hand of God Almighty, and in the school curriculum, provision has
been made for religious instruction at school.
In the Transvaal secondary school definite provision is made in
the curriculum for religious instruction at schools The Transvaal Education Department is decidedly concerned that the subject should have its due.
Certain criteria have been established in this study to which
religious instruction has to conform. The demands of the Bible,
Statute 39 of 1967, the parents, the church, the State, the
Transvaal Education Department according to the Manual of Instructions to Principals, Ordinance 29 of 1953, the psychological pedagogical aspects, the modern child and the demands made on the modern educator are discussed.
Two questionnaires were circulated to determine the current position of religious instruction. Questionnaire I was directed
to the teachers of religious instruction in twenty Afrikaans medium secondary schools that were selected for this study. These
schools represent both urban and country schools. The questionnaires to these teachers covered a wide field. Among other things,
inquiries were made after the religious instructor's qualifications in the subject, his method of presentation, his views on
the syllabuses, the nature of the subject, ways of testing and
discipline in the class. The religious attitude of the pupils
and also the teaching aids used in religious instruction classes were investigated.
The response to the questionnaires submitted to the teachers of
the subject, religious instruction, yielded much to gladden the
heart. However, certain deficiencies that still have to be
rectified were also revealed.
Questionnaire II was submitted to the pupils of the same twenty
secondary schools. Twenty pupils per standerd, i.e., for standerd six to standerd ten, were asked to complete this questionnaire. The questions to the pupils covered the following aspects: pupil's opinions regarding the subject, the attitude of
their fellow -pupils towards the subject, questions about religious denomination, Bible reading and family devotions. Pupils
answered these questions frankly and honestly. In Chapter 4
the findings of the investigation are evaluated. In Chapter 5
recommendations are made to rectify certain weaknesses exposed
in the previous chapter.
On the whole, one can conclude that religious instruction at
school enjoys the serious attention of all people concerned with
it and that pupils in the main adopt a positive attitude towards
Bible instruction. Should the various shortcomings receive the
attention suggested, the Education Department and the legislators,
the parents and the pupils, the church and the nation ought to feel
at ease with regard to the position of religious instruction in the
Afrikaans medium secondary schools of the Transvaal. / Thesis (MEd)--PU vir CHO
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Die rooster in Transvaalse laerskole in die 20ste eeu / Jacob Daniël de VilliersDe Villiers, Jacob Daniël January 1959 (has links)
Thesis (MEd)--PU vir CHO
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Sorgsame toesighouding van die werkswinkelonderwyser ten opsigte van leerlingveiligheid / Paul Lodewyk ElsEls, Paul Lodewyk January 1994 (has links)
The teacher has a notable legal duty with regard to attentive supervision and the safety
of the pupils in the workshop.
It is expected of the professionally trained workshop teacher to look after the pupil
placed in his care as conscientiously as a solicitous father would. The teacher's discretion
and conduct should always be based on predictable and preventative action. Because
pupils cannot possibly have the discernment of adults about more and Jess dangerous
situations, the teacher should make provision for this factor in. his daily planning.
Juridical aspects such as solicitous care, predictable and preventative action, in addition
to the elements of accountability such as action, illegality, guilt, causality and damage
demarcate and elucidate the daily task of the workshop teacher, who should ascertain
that he is familiar with all these aspects. Because of this, a literature research on this
matter has been undertaken.
The aim of the empirical research has been to determine the present state of knowledge
of the workshop teacher regarding to certain educational law aspects and the teacher's
solicitous supervising role concerning pupil safety.
A case study with appropriate questions on juridical teaching matters has been used
to determine if the workshop teacher is capable of applying in practice, during normal
situations, those juridical instructions which apply directly to his profession.
By means of this empirical study the following problems were identified:
• The respondents revealed an ignorance with regard to the following characteristic
behaviour traits of pupils: impulsiveness, recklessness, disobedience, inconsiderate
motion and disadvantage-causing behaviour.
• A large number of respondents were not capable of applying their knowledge
of juridical teaching matters in a case study.
Specific recommendations have been made which should lead to a more sound prepared
workshop teacher for his task as solicitous supervisor of his pupils' safety. / Skripsie (MEd)--PU vir CHO, 1994
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Knelpunte rondom godsdiensonderrigaangeleenthede in Transvaalse skole, prinsipieel gesien / Izak Jozua Minnaar van der MerweVan der Merwe, Izak Jozua Minnaar January 1981 (has links)
This study has been an attempt to identify the most important
problems associated with Religious instruction and other religious matters in white schools in the Transvaal. The crux
of the matter is that children with different religious and
ideological views attend the same provincial schools, which
gives rise to certain problems .in the teaching' situation, especially as far as Religious instruction and other religious
matters are concerned.
In an attempt to offer a solution to this problem, the following hypothesis was formulated: the application of the principle of religious and ideological differentiation in education
in white schools in the Republic of South-Africa will ensure
that no problems in connection with Religious instruction and
other religious affairs will he encountered.
The following steps were taken to verify the hypothesis:
firstly, a scriptural fundamental standpoint w.as adopted in
connection with the position of Religious instruction at school
as well as the Christian Protestant attitude towards dissenters. In education the Christian Protestant attitude towards
dissenters is determined by the general accepted point of view
that all people are equal, but that each person is unique in
every aspect and that education should cater for every person
through differentiation. Hence religious and ideological differentiation is anthropologically justifiable.
Historical research revealed several factors which gave rise
to Act 39 of 1967 being promulgated and the acceptance of
Ordinance 29 of 1953 of Transvaal. A fact which was revealed
by this research is that there are two distinct trends of
thought in South African education, namely one based on the
principle of Christian national education and a liberal trend
which propagates and promotes a neutral, undogmatic education.
Closer analysis of the laws concerned and the ordinance referred to exposed a contradiction which makes true Christian education impossible. Since Ordinance 29 of 1953 stipulated that
all dogma is prohibited in schools, it makes the Christian
dogma likewise undesirable and is thus in direct contrast with
Act 39 of 1967.
A comparison with Religious instruction in the Netherlands and
England revealed certain problems in these countries and that
some of these problems corresponded closely with those in
South Africa, especially in the Transvaal.
After all problems had been identified and the hypothesis tested by deliberation, the conclusion was drawn that the application of the principle of religious and ideological differentiation in education/schools is the only acceptable solution for
most of the problems identified.
Since this research has revealed clearly that effective application of religious and ideological differentiation is no easy matter, further possible areas for research have been briefly indicated. / Thesis (MEd)--PU vir CHO, 1981
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Die sillabus vir godsdiensonderrig en Bybelkunde aan Transvaalse onderwysersopleidingsinrigtings / Jan Hendrik van WykVan Wyk, Jan Hendrik January 1966 (has links)
Thesis (MEd)--PU vir CHO
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Aspekte van onderwysontwikkeling in Transvaalse provinsiale skole vir blankes in die tydperk, 1950-1963 / Jacobus Adriaan VorsterVorster, Jacobus Adriaan January 1971 (has links)
This research focussed on the development of
certain aspects of teaching practice in the Transvaal in
the period 1950-1963 which co-incided with the
directorship of the late Dr. A.H. du P. van Wyk.
It encompasses the new educational policy of which
Differentiated Secondary Education forms the most
important aspect in the so-called comprehensive high school.
This type of school has replaced the purely academic
high school, the junior high school and the school farm,
of which the latter two had already failed. It
provides for courses leading to University Entrance, the
Secondary School Certificate and a std 8 Certificate.
The factors which gave rise to this policy, its
formulation and implementation are discussed on the
basis of various Commissions of Enquiry during the
period 1939-1955. The most important impediments to
full-fledged differentiation are evinced after which the
problem of failure as well as the effect of
differentiation on the retentiveness of high schools are analysed.
The development of primary teaching was less
perceptible. The most important change boiled down to
the admission of five-year olds and the transfer of
Std. 6 to the high schools. Education of deviate
children on the other hand, developed considerably in
all its facets and extreme efforts were employed to
eliminate a great backlog. An intensive study was
made of the development of educational facilities such
as school buildings, halls, swimming baths and libraries.
The supplementary educational services of the Department
of Education such as the School Medical Service, the
Psychological, the Library, the Hostel and the Bus
Services, etc., also received due attention.
The teaching staff also was a focal point of
interest. The most important development in teachers'
training is discussed as well as the most significant
amendments in the conditions of service for teachers.
A salient point was the continual struggle which the
Department waged against the lingering shortage of
teachers.
The research was concluded with a short review of
the significance of the period and the implications for
the aspects which had been discussed. / Proefskrif--PU vir CHO
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'n Ondersoek na die onderwys van immigrantekinders in 'n nywerheidsgroeipunt van die R.S.A. / Martha Magdalena SmithSmith, Martha Magdalena January 1975 (has links)
1. Introduction -
This is a brief account of the education of immigrants at
schools within an industrial growth point in the R.S.A. It
comprises problems encountered in schools locally, the education of immigrants in foreign countries generally and
possible improvements in the education of immigrant children
in the area researched.
2. Orientation and motivation -
Since the establishment of the Department of Immigration in
1961 the ever increasing numbers of immigrants entering our
schools have created various educational problems. Consequently requests for research into these problems were made
to the Minister of National Education. The purpose of this
study is to give an objective, systematic description of the
didactic-pedagogic situation within 31 schools at which immigrants are enrolled. The areas concerned are the iron and
steel, and petrochemical industrial areas of the Transvaal
and the Orange Free State.
This study was undertaken during 1971 - 72, referring back
to 1961, and includes a universum of 17 608 children of whom
2 022 are immigrants. A sample of 300 •immigrants and a control group of 300 South Africans were taken from 17 schools.
Further information was gained from official and non-official
documents, interviews and direct observation. Research was
done in the countries of origin Israel, the Federal Republic of Germany, Switzerland, France, Belgium, the Netherlands,
England, the U.S.A. and Canada.
Immigrant children are defined as follows for the purposes of
this inquiry:
Definition for statistical purposes: An immigrant child is a
child of foreign parents who have legally immigrated into the
R.S.A. intending to settle permanently and who qualify, or
eventually may qualify for South African citizenship through
naturalisation, or who have already obtained South African
citizenship during the lifetime of the child.
Definition for language teaching purposes: An immigrant who
requires language instruction is:
(1) a child whose mother tongue is English but who has no
knowledge of Afrikaans as a second language;
(2) a child whose mother tongue is neither Afrikaans nor
English and who has no knowledge of either Afrikaans or
English as a second language;
(3) a child whose mother tongue is neither Afrikaans nor
English but who has a knowledge of Afrikaans or English
as a second language.
These children are a potential source of linguistic problems
in schools.
If knowledge of the medium of instruction is taken as a criterion immigrants can be further defined as follows for the
purpose of language teaching:
An immigrant is a child who cannot read, write or speak the
medium of instruction or the second language. Consequently
this child becomes a potential source of linguistic problems
in the medium of instruction and the second language.
3. Immigration in the R.S.A. -
A survey of immigration in the R.S.A. is essential as it determines the extent of provision required for the education of immigrant pupils. Education is a most appropriate means of promoting successful integration. It can however be applied as a
conservation mechanism for retaining the culture of the native
land. The history of immigration in South Africa illustrates
that education can bring about cultural changes. Where a policy
of dispersal was followed as in the case of the French Huguenots
they became integrated with the majority of the European population
and education brought cultural changes. Many British and
German settlers however retained their identity through
group settlement and education in their national culture.
Today immigration is necessary. European labour is required
if an economic growth rate of 5 1/2% is to be maintained. It
is also required for demographic, social and cultural reasons.
The Department of Immigration was established in 1961 to promote immigration. This Department has delegated the function
of immigrant integration to State subsidised private organizations, as well as the Department of National Education and
the Provincial Education Departments. The influx of 40 000
immigrants from various European and other countries yields
7 000 immigrant pupils annually. For socio-economic reasons
immigrants tend to settle at industrial growth points, where
this pattern of settlement influences education.
4. The education of immigrant children at an industrial
growth point in the R.S.A. -
Most immigrants within the specified terrain come from the
over-populated heavy iron and steel industrial areas or
impoverished agricultural areas of central and southern
Europe and the United Kingdom. Refugees from eastern Europe
also immigrate. For purposes of this research the immigrants
are classified into three groups according to 1 the language
of their country of origin, viz. English 34%, Continental Germanic
28% and Diverse 38%.
According to the medium of instruction the language ratio of
Afrikaans to English is 7 : 1 in the Transvaal schools, 9 : 1
in the schools of the O.F.S. and 9 : 1 in the research area.
All the English speaking immigrants are compelled to take instruction through the medium of English as English is their
home language. Parents of immigrant children who have no
knowledge of either English or Afrikaans choose the medium of
instruction artificially for their children. This results
in English being the language of choice of 97% of the Diverse
and 45% of the Continental-Germanic immigrants. Afrikaans
is the medium of instruction for the rest of the children.
Thus Afrikaans is the medium of instruction for 19% and
English the medium of instruction for 81% of the universum
of immigrants. The reasons for preference of English can
not always be accounted for educationally. According to their
medium of instruction the immigrant children are distributed
in the public, private and nursery schools of the research
area so that the number of immigrants in English medium
schools is > 40%, in parallel medium schools 5 to 15% and
in Afrikaans medium schools < 5%.
Provision is made for concessions regarding the promotion of
pupils and allocation of staff to schools with immigrant pupils. Owing to the large numbers of immigrants in English
medium schools, special staff have been appointed mainly to
English medium schools. Special teachers for immigrants have
not been trained as such. The extra staff is responsible for
extra language classes and special immigrant classes. The
normal staff undertakes the teaching of immigrants in regular
classes as many immigrants are also placed directly into
classes to follow the regular curriculum.
5. Problems in the education of immigrant children -
The dynamic problem in the education of immigrants is that
they are strange to the education in the research area. The
socio-cultural aim of education in the R.S.A. is to educate
the child within the framework of the national culture. The
basic requirement for this is a national milieu and continuity
of education. The problem is that since 1961 the continuity of
education has been impaired as a result of the ever increasing
number of immigrant children who are unevenly distributed.
Their alienation varies in the didactic-pedagogic situation
according to the extent of their exposure to the cultures of
their native land and that of South Africa. Consequently
various degrees of alienation are distinguishable in immigrant
pupils. With increasing age man loses the ability to become
proficient in new languages and absorb different cultures,
consequently change is progressively resisted. Educational
continuity is of vast importance, the disturbance of which
creates a problem as in the case of immigrants. The degree
of alienation also varies according to age, length of stay,
choice of medium of instruction, cultural deprivation, the
volume and heterogeneity of immigrants, genetic strangeness,
religious divergence, distribution or concentration of immi
grants and the attitude of South Africans.
Language and communication is ab initio the immigrants’ problem as language is the medium of instruction. Although
thought and language originate separately, language is the
vehicle of thought. The development of language is determined
by the degree to which the child is understood. Consequently
exposure to language is essential. Education through the
medium of one of the official languages is essential in, introducing the child to the national culture. Because language
medium is a prerequisite for dynamic educational progress,
immigrant children in the process of learning should never
stagnate while acquiring language proficiency. Immigrants
experience a problem in that their oral means of communication is no longer effective after immigration, because their
inner language and thoughts are still in their mother tongue.
Hence their scholastic standard often exceeds their ability
of expression in the new medium of instruction. Many immigrants who appear "dumb" have been affected by the break in
the continuity of their education. Immigrants also often
experience pronunciation problems and language confusion.
Immigrant children are also expected to master both official
languages concurrently. The accumulation of immigrants in
English medium schools however leads to the formation of
common language groups. Private mother tongue education and
ghetto formation restrict physical and functional language
contact with South Africans, which are essentials for educational adaptation.
Attainment by immigrant children in the New South African
Group Tests is mainly determined by their knowledge of the
medium of instruction and of the South African culture. There
appears to be a positive correlation between the immigrants’
intelligence on the one hand and their language development
and degree of exposure to the South African culture in the
course of time on the other hand. It is noteworthy that the
test achievements of Continental-Germanic children show a
greater degree of improvement than those of the English and
Diverse immigrant children. A probable explanation for this
phenomenon is that the Continental-Germanic children adapt
themselves sooner and better to the South African culture
than the English and Diverse groups. Similar results were
obtained in England and the U.S.A. Children from southern
European countries appear to have inferior educational potential. However intelligence tests are not culture free.
The apparent inability of the Diverse immigrant children to
acquire South African culture may also partially be due to a
lack of exposure to the South African culture because of their
accumulation in English medium schools, ghetto formation and
group isolation.
Compulsory education in the R.S.A. differs from that of the
countries of origin and this 90ntributes towards the immigrant children’s divergence regarding scholastic niveau and
school age.
Immigrant children are unevenly distributed in schools in the
research area. The ratio of immigrant children to South
Africans is 1 : 35 and 1 : 45 in Afrikaans medium primary
and secondary schools and 1 : 1 in English medium schools.
According to this ratio immigrant children "disappear" in
Afrikaans medium schools while they are a threat to the identity of English medium schools. In English medium schools
98% of the immigrant children in primary schools are concentrated in the junior primary phase.
Where the ratio of immigrants to South Africans exceed 1 : 3
it limits the exposure of both immigrants and South Africans
to the South African culture. This tendency promotes displacement of South African children. Unequal distribution
also occurs in courses where the Diverse children tend to
concentrate in the Std. VIII course and adaptation classes.
Ethnic groups show a tendency to concentrate in schools,
e.g. 62% of all Portuguese concentrate in one school. Causes
of unequal distribution include preference of English as the
medium of instruction, religion, ethnicentrism and cultural
conflict, the settlement pattern of immigrants and displacement of the receiving society by aggressive immigration.
Analysis of the population statistics of English medium schools
in which immigrants concentrate indicates that displacement of
South African pupils occurs when immigrants exceed 20% of the
school population and when the ratio of South African to immigrant children becomes > 1 : 3. Notwithstanding the fact that
less than 5% immigrants are found in the neighbouring Afrikaans medium schools, the enrolment in these schools shows a
regressive tendency because Afrikaans children are displaced
from the natural school zone because of immigrant group settlement. Consequently the enrolment in Afrikaans medium schools
has had to be artificially supplemented by rezoning and busing.
The consistent incidence of immigrants of a specific nationality
leads to the establishment of their own private schools as a
defensive measure in retaining their national culture.
Academic achievements of immigrants show that they meet with
more success in parallel medium schools, that the Continental-Germanic
children achieve better results and that the greatest
erosion takes place among Diverse immigrants. English immigrant
children are poorly motivated. Academic achievements of immigrant children are positively related to vocabulary, length of
domicile and adjustment. Language deficiency must be taken into
consideration for promotion purposes for two to three years
after immigration. Matriculation concessions have to be retained for Diverse children but not for English and Continental-Germanic children Cultural deprivation, irregular school
attendance and poor motivation also result in poor achievement.
There is a lack of suitable teaching methods, syllabi and
teaching aids. Teachers have not received the necessary
training for immigrant or cross-cultural education. Parents
are not involved enough in the education of their children.
6. Education of immigrants elsewhere -
Inter- and intra-continental migration causes thousands of
immigrant children to attend schools in foreign countries.
Excellent measures are taken for the elimination of immigrant
alienation and for the conservation of the national character
of education, religion, language and the autochthonous population in schools. Intensive research preceded these measures
and the statistics of immigration were taken into consideration
in the planning of education.
The majority of immigrant countries have formulated policies
which provide for inter alia the dispersal of immigrants limiting
them to 20% per school, 5% per nationality per school and four
to five per class. The necessary consideration is given to the
religion of immigrants, but dispersal and education are regarded
as sufficient safeguard for native mores, religion and culture.
Immigrants are compelled to master the medium of instruction as
a prerequisite for cultural integration. The official medium
of instruction is compulsory in order to prevent the formation
of foreign language groups. Immigrants are exempted from the
second language and allowed to study their mother tongue as a
subject. In cases where a foreign language is taken, the consolidation of the medium of instruction receives priority.
Although private schools exist they are not regarded as desirable
because of their curbing effect on integration.
The grouping of immigrants in classes depends on their varying
degrees of alienation and on how soon the continuity of education
can be restored. Pre-school immigrant children attend nursery
schools in order to promote mastery of the-medium of instruction.
Reception centres are provided from where immigrants are directed
to schools. Dispersal in ordinary classes9 flexible integration,
promotion classes, intensive term and year classes are utilized.
Adolescents are required to comply with the regulations regarding
compulsory education in order to promote their social, cultural
and economic integration. Remedial education is provided and
teaching content adjusted and optimally utilized for transcultural
teaching.
Special methods of language teaching, for instance the audio-
linguistic method - based on words and structures with the
highest use frequency - are used to enable the immigrant pupils
to master a functional vocabulary quickly. Various teaching
aids are used, e.g. creation of realistic conditions in teaching,
holiday projects and various audio-visual aids.
Specially trained supernumerary teaching staff are appointed.
Immigrant parents are also taught the new language in order to
promote their economic value but also with a view to cultural
integration. A marked deficiency in the education of immigrant
pupils is encountered in countries where no research has been
done on education of immigrants. In such countries the alienation of immigrant children is emphasised and prolonged by their
isolation in "Ubergangklasse" and accumulation in ordinary classes.
7. Possible solutions to the problems in the education of
immigrant children in the research area -
In order to evaluate the education of immigrant pupils in the
research area, criteria were formulated with due regard to the
deficiencies of education in the research area, historical aspects of immigrant education and successful measures that have
been taken abroad. Local immigrant teaching was subsequently
evaluated by application of the formulated criteria, hence
deficiencies and excellencies in local measures were revealed.
The following proposals for the improvement of immigrant
education in the research area were deduced:
7.1. Education and immigration should be co-ordinated for the
"South Africanizing” of immigrant children and for the
protection of the national character of education and
national identity. This demands co-ordination concerning
the extent of provision of education for immigrant children
and the nature and extent of immigration.
(a) Research should be done immediately concerning the
factors underlying the alienation of immigrants and
the factors determining the national character of
education.
(b) National education policy demands education with a
broad national character. This implies elimination
of alienation amongst immigrants and cultural
integration with a view to ultimate citizenship. On
the other hand it implies the protection of the
national identity and the national character of
education. South Africanization contains an inherent
dualism rooted in the division of Whites into English
speaking and Afrikaans speaking groups. For the
purposes of this thesis South Africanization means
identification with either the Afrikaans or English section
of the community.
(c) Protection of the national character demands that the
volume and origin of immigrants should be controlled
and that the assimilability o:f prospective immigrants
should be carefully considered. Immigrants should be
limited to 20% per school, four to five per class and
5% per nationality per school.
Immigrants should attend the schools in the immediate
vicinity of their homes. Zoning should be statistically
planned to prevent excessive concentration of immigrants
in certain schools, and in order to promote fraternization
of immigrants with South African children guardian pupils•
should be appointed.
7.2. Immigrant education should retain the Protestant heritage
in South African education. Immigration should be limited
when the prospective immigrants are of the Roman Catholic
or Greek Orthodox faiths. Immigrants with permissive inclinations should be discouraged. Both immigrants and South
Africans should receive guidance regarding clause 2(a) of
Act no. 39 of 1967 in order to promote peaceful co-existence.
7.3. Immigrant education should preserve the traditional language
relationship of the outochthonous European population. This
entails reasonable limitation of the quota of English speaking
immigrants.
Immigrants should be carefully dispersed in order to maintain
a ratio of English to Afrikaans pupils of 1 : 9 in the
research area and schools of the O.F.S., and 3 : 7 in schools
of the Transvaal. Continental-Germanic children should be
canalized into the Afrikaans medium schools as Afrikaans
is closely related to their language of origin. Diverse
immigrants with no proficiency in English should also be
enrolled in Afrikaans medium schools. Under no
circumstances should State subsidies be available for private
mother tongue schools.
7.4. Immigrant education should aim at proficiency in the
second language only after knowledge of the medium of
instruction has been consolidated. Immigrant pupils
already fluent in the medium of instruction should receive
intensive instruction in the second official language.
7.5. Education in public schools should be fully utilized for
ensuring ultimate citizenship. Hence immigrants should
attend only free public schools. Immigrants may receive
instruction in their home language at the discretion of
the principal where this is justified by enrolment.
Immigrants should also be allowed to study their home language
as a third language, and matriculation subject.
7.6. Immigrant pupils including adolescents should comply with
the current regulations concerning compulsory education and
attend school regularly. Transference of immigrant pupils
to lower classes due to language deficiency should be
prohibited and immigrants should be compelled to undergo
reasonable military training.
7.7. The necessary educational guidance should be provided on
admission and primary emphasis should be placed on the
mastering of the medium of instruction.
7.8. Pre-primary education should be available for the preschool
immigrant children not proficient in the medium of
instruction. State aided and industrial nursery schools
as well as créches should be provided.
7.9. Reception centres should be provided to obtain the maximum
information regarding the potential and the scholastic
background of immigrant pupils, and to direct them to
specific schools.
7.10. Immigrant pupils should be placed in ordinary classes as
soon as possible and pupils not proficient in either the
medium of instruction or the second language should
receive intensive tuition in the relevant language in special
language classes. Those unacquainted with both official
languages should be flexibly integrated.
7.11. Older immigrant pupils unacquainted with the medium of
instruction and experiencing integration problems or those
who are forced to master the medium of instruction in a
very limited period before leaving school, should receive
intensive language teaching in a term, trimester or year
class.
7.12. In exceptional cases where the standard of education of
immigrant pupils is markedly below that of their peers, special
recovery classes of up to a year’s duration should be
provided. It is also advisable to admit all immigrant; pupils
who are over the age of 13 and who have not yet passed Std.
5 to the Practical Course and to apply flexible integration
in their cases.
7.13. Suitable provision should be made for remedial teaching of
immigrant pupils.
7.14. Vacation schools in rural areas, hostels and open air
schools should be utilized to South Africanize immigrant
pupils and South African pupils should receive guidance
in order to equip them to promote integration of immigrant
pupils.
7.15. Subject matter should also be chosen keeping in mind the
South Africanization, integration and acquisition of South
African culture of immigrant pupils.
7.16. Immigrant pupils’ knowledge of the medium of instruction
should be taken into consideration in their evaluation.
7.17. The intensive language teaching should concentrate on the
quick mastery of a high frequency, functional vocabulary.
Audio-visual aids as well as the visual lingual method
should be fully utilized.
7.18. The enrolment of pupils should be taken into consideration
for staffing purposes. Where the number of immigrant pupils
does not justify the appointment of a supernumerary teacher,
immigrants should be grouped together in a centrally located
school until the numbers are sufficient. Provision should
be made for a language advisor and suitable staff at the
reception centre.
7.19. Immigrant parents should be involved in the education of
their children and master the language of instruction. / Thesis--PU vir CHO
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