No description available.

No description available.

Amphetamine (AMPH) and its derivatives embody a remarkable breadth of pharmacology. These molecules exert their effects, both therapeutic and pathological, at the human monoamine transporters, which tune synaptic dynamics by evacuating monoamine neuromodulators from the synapse subsequent to neuronal impulses. These transporters are electrogenic, and the transporter-mediated current can be correlated to a surrogate measure of the change in membrane voltage: Ca++ currents from co-transfected L-type Ca++ channels. The present work makes use of this assay, with which it is possible to derive pharmacodynamic metrics from both substrates and inhibitors. This work presents data on a heretofore-unstudied class of amphetamine analogs: the enantiomers of N-Me 4-Me AMPH and N-Et 4-Me AMPH. Remarkably, while both enantiomers of the N-Me version of this compound function as substrates at hDAT, both enantiomers of the N-Et version are inhibitors. This switch does not occur at hNET, where all enantiomers of both N-Me and N-Et 4-Me AMPH function as substrates. Further, (S)-N-Et 4-Me AMPH is a substrate at dDAT. EC50 and IC50 values for all drugs at both transporters are presented. I present the results of super-resolution microscopic co-localization studies on the plasmalemmal spatial relation of the human dopamine transporter and voltage gated calcium channel, L-type 1.2 (CaV1.2). I discuss future aims toward a unified understanding of the mechanisms of monoamine transporter function, with an emphasis on what amphetamine can illuminate in this regard.

Amyloidogenic neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) are an important health issue. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of the disease-related protein aggregates, that are present in humans, are only understood partially. I have used and developed biophysical methods to study the structural and biological properties of individual aggregates of Amyloid β peptide and α-Synuclein, proteins whose aggregation is associated with the development of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease respectively. I expanded the single aggregate visualisation through enhancement (SAVE) technique, which is a method based on the fluorescent dye Thioflavin T (ThT) that reversibly bind to the aggregates and whose fluorescence increases upon binding. I firstly explored the use of other dyes for these experiments and found that a ThT dimer has higher affinity to α-Synuclein aggregates in vitro. I then applied the SAVE method to the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) of a cohort of AD patients and control CSF and observed no clear difference in aggregate number. However, these experiments provided insights into how antibodies bind the aggregates in human CSF. I could show, that despite altering the Ca2+ influx into both cells and vesicles, the antibody did not measurably affect the aggregate structure. To study the size specific effects of the Amyloid β 42 (Aβ42) peptide in more detail, I used and optimised gradient ultracentrifugation combined with single aggregate imaging to study the structural properties of the isolated aggregates. This aggregation kinetic independent method allowed me to compare the properties of fluorescently labelled and unlabelled Aβ42 and characterize the size dependent properties of aggregates in a single experiment. Since I could measure the relative concentration of different size aggregates it was also possible to compare the properties of single aggregates of different sizes. I then used biological assays to examine the ability of aggregates to permeabilise membranes resulting in the entry of calcium ions, and their ability to induce TNFα production in microglia cells. Both processes are thought to play key roles in the development of AD. I found that small soluble oligomers are most potent at inducing Ca2+ influx, whereas longer protofilaments are the most potent inducers of TNFα production. My results suggest that the mechanism by which aggregates damage cells changes as aggregation proceeds, as longer aggregates with different structures are formed. Protofilaments with a diameter of 1 nm or less have a structure that could make them particularly potent at causing the signalling of toll-like receptors, providing a molecular basis for their ability to induce TNFα production.

Des techniques variées de visualisation de molécules d’intérêt sur cellules vivantes ou fixées ont permis de suivre leur synthèse, localisation, dégradation et autres activités. Dans cette étude, nous avons développé deux outils de fluorescence pour étudier la synthèse des protéines sur bactéries vivantes. Le premier décrit l’utilisation du système Spinach pour l’imagerie du ribosome. Cette approche diffère des méthodes conventionnelles qui utilisent des protéines fluorescentes puisque l’ARN ribosomal 16S contient un aptamère qui rend fluorescent un composé fluorogène. Une étude comparative de la performance de différents aptamères Spinach a été réalisée. Un deuxième outil se focalise sur l’accumulation d’un antibiotique de la famille des aminoglycosides (ligand du ribosome) conjugué à un fluorophore. Ce nouveau conjugué, qui a conservé son activité bactéricide permet pour la première fois de visualiser l’accumulation de l’antibiotique sur bactérie vivante. Cela permet une analyse au niveau de la cellule unique d’une population bactérienne exposée à l’antibiotique. Nous avons également obtenu des données sur la localisation de l’antibiotique une fois qu’il a pénétré dans la bactérie à une résolution inégalée par microscopie super-résolutive. Nous espérons que ces deux méthodes vont maintenant permettre une meilleure compréhension de la synthèse des protéines et fournir une vue nouvelle de la pénétration des antibiotiques dans les bactéries pour y produire leur action bactéricide. / Various visualizing techniques have previously enabled monitoring the fate of molecules of interest: their expression, localization, degradation and other activities in live or fixed cells. In this study, we have developed two fluorescent tools to study protein synthesis in live bacterial cell. The first one describes the application of Spinach system to ribosomes imaging. This is different from conventional methods (that use fluorescent proteins) in that 16S rRNA contains an inserted RNA aptamer that elicits fluorescence of a fluorogenic compound. A comparative study of the performance of different Spinach aptamers was performed here. A second system focuses on the uptake of a fluorescently labeled ligand of the ribosome, an antibiotic of the class of aminoglycosides. This novel conjugate, which kept its bactericidal activity allows for the first time imaging of aminoglycoside uptake on live bacteria. This opened the door to a single cell analysis of bacterial cell populations. We also obtained data about the localization of the antibiotic once inside the bacteria to an unprecedented resolution using super resolution microscopy. We hope that both of these methods will contribute to a better understanding of protein synthesis as well as provide a novel view on the way antibiotics penetrate into cells and perform their bactericidal action.

Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy has become a standard technique for modern biophysics and single molecule spectroscopy research. Here is presented a novel widefield extension of the established single-point technique. Flow in microfluidic devices was used as a model system for microscopic motion and through widefield fluorescence correlation spectroscopy flow profiles were mapped in three dimensions. The technique presented is shown to be more tolerant to low signal strength, allowing image data with signal-to-noise values as low as 1.4 to produce accurate flow maps as well as utilizing dye-labeled single antibodies as flow tracers. With proper instrumentation flows along the axial direction can also be measured. Widefield fluorescence correlation spectroscopy has also been utilized to produce super-resolution confocal microscopic images relying on the single-molecule microsecond blinking dynamics of fluorescent silver clusters. A method for fluorescence modulation signal extraction as well as synthesis of several novel noble metal fluorophores is also presented.

The cell nucleus is a chemical reactor. Nuclear components interact with each other to express genes, duplicate the chromosomes for cell division, and protect DNA from alteration. These reactions are regulated along the cell cycle and in response to stress. One of the fundamental nuclear processes, transcription, enables the production of a messenger RNA from a template DNA sequence. While mandatory for the cell, transcription nevertheless may involve a very small number of molecules. Indeed, a single gene would have only few copies in the genome. During my PhD, I studied nuclear processes in human cells nuclei at the single molecule level with novel imaging techniques. I developed new statistical tools to quantify nuclear components movement that revealed a dynamic nuclear architecture. Since the 90s, simple methods have been developed for the observation of single molecules in the cell. These experiments can be conducted in an ordinary inverted microscope. We used these methods to monitor nuclear molecules called transcription factors (TF) that regulate transcription. From TF dynamics, we concluded that nuclear exploration by transcription factors is regulated by their chemical interactions with partners. The organization of the components of the nucleus guide transcription factors in their search of a gene. As an example of this organization, we then studied chromatin, the de-condensed form of nuclear DNA, proving that it displays the characteristics of a self-organized fractal structure. This structure changes in response to cellular fate and stress. In yeast, we showed that the interminglement of chromatin constrained DNA locus movement in a reptation regime. All these results show the interdependence of the structure of the nucleus and of its chemical reactions. With combination of realistic modeling and high resolution microscopy, we have enlightened the specificity of the nucleus as a chemical reactor. This thesis has also enabled the development of accurate methods for the statistical analysis of single molecule data.

The cell nucleus is a chemical reactor. Nuclear components interact with each other to express genes, duplicate the chromosomes for cell division, and protect DNA from alteration. These reactions are regulated along the cell cycle and in response to stress. One of the fundamental nuclear processes, transcription, enables the production of a messenger RNA from a template DNA sequence. While mandatory for the cell, transcription nevertheless may involve a very small number of molecules. Indeed, a single gene would have only few copies in the genome. During my PhD, I studied nuclear processes in human cells nuclei at the single molecule level with novel imaging techniques. I developed new statistical tools to quantify nuclear components movement that revealed a dynamic nuclear architecture. Since the 90s, simple methods have been developed for the observation of single molecules in the cell. These experiments can be conducted in an ordinary inverted microscope. We used these methods to monitor nuclear molecules called transcription factors (TF) that regulate transcription. From TF dynamics, we concluded that nuclear exploration by transcription factors is regulated by their chemical interactions with partners. The organization of the components of the nucleus guide transcription factors in their search of a gene. As an example of this organization, we then studied chromatin, the de-condensed form of nuclear DNA, proving that it displays the characteristics of a self-organized fractal structure. This structure changes in response to cellular fate and stress. In yeast, we showed that the interminglement of chromatin constrained DNA locus movement in a reptation regime. All these results show the interdependence of the structure of the nucleus and of its chemical reactions. With combination of realistic modeling and high resolution microscopy, we have enlightened the specificity of the nucleus as a chemical reactor. This thesis has also enabled the development of accurate methods for the statistical analysis of single molecule data.

No description available.

Un membre de la famille des tétraspanines, CD82, est une protéine transmembranaire et l'un des rares suppresseurs de métastase identifié jusqu'à présent. Cependant, le mécanisme de suppression de métastase induite par CD82 reste mal compris. Les tétraspanines, y compris CD82, ont la propriété unique de créer un réseau d'interactions protéines-protéines à la membrane plasmique, appelé « tetraspanin web ». Dans ce réseau, CD82 est connu pour interagir avec d’autres tétraspanines, y compris CD9, CD81 et CD151, en plus d’autres protéines membranaires telles que les intégrines, les récepteurs de facteurs de croissance et les protéines de type immunoglobuline. De plus, des travaux antérieurs ont identifié que l'interaction de CD82 avec l’EGFR, d'autres tétraspanines et les intégrines dépend de l'expression des gangliosides au sein de la membrane plasmique.À ce jour, les études dans ce domaine ont utilisé des techniques d'ensemble qui ne peuvent pas tenir compte de la dynamique et de la stochasticité de la membrane, alors qu'il est maintenant bien établi que l'organisation spatio-temporelle de ses composants est cruciale pour certaines fonctions cellulaires.Ainsi, lors de ma thèse de doctorat, j'ai cherché à étudier à la fois la dynamique et la compartimentation de CD82 et de ses partenaires à la membrane plasmique des cellules épithéliales mammaires HB2. Pour ce faire, la technique de pistage en molécule unique basée sur l’utilisation d’un microscope TIRF a été utilisée afin d’obtenir des informations directes à l'échelle nanométrique sur la dynamique de protéines individuelles dans les cellules vivantes. Nos expériences en pistage de molécule unique ont démontré que l'expression de CD82 augmentait la dynamique CD81 à la membrane plasmique des cellules HB2 et modifiait ses interactions au sein du tetraspanin web. En revanche, les dynamiques de CD9 et de l’intégrine α3 n'ont pas été modifiées par l'expression de CD82. De plus, en modifiant enzymatiquement l'expression des gangliosides, nous avons montré que ces lipides sont impliqués à la fois dans la dynamique et la compartimentation des tétraspanines à la membrane plasmique. En effet, la déplétion en gangliosides entraine une augmentation de la dynamique de CD82, CD81 et de l’intégrine α3 ainsi qu'une redistribution des tétraspanines à la membrane plasmique. Nous avons également étudié la migration en 2D des cellules HB2 et montré que CD82 et les gangliosides modifiaient de façon différentielle la migration des cellules HB2.L’ensemble de nos résultats démontrent que CD82 et les gangliosides modulent de manière différente la dynamique et la compartimentation des tétraspanines et de leurs partenaires à la membrane plasmique des cellules HB2. Enfin, ce travail suggère que l'activité de CD82 en tant que suppresseur de métastase pourrait être en partie liée à sa capacité, en coopération avec les gangliosides, à moduler l'organisation spatio-temporelle de ses partenaires au sein du tetraspanin web. / A member of the family of tetraspanins, CD82, is a transmembrane protein and one of the rare metastasis suppressors identified so far. However, the mechanism of CD82-induced metastasis suppression remains not fully revealed. Tetraspanins, including CD82, have the unique property to create a network of protein-protein interactions within the plasma membrane, called tetraspanin web. Within this network, tetraspanins interact with each other (eg. CD82 with CD9, CD81 and CD151) as well as with other proteins, such as: integrins, growth factor receptors and immunoglobulin-like proteins. Additionally previous work has identified that the interaction of CD82 with EGFR, other tetraspanins and integrins depends on the expression of gangliosides at the plasma membrane.To date, studies in this field have employed ensemble-averaging techniques which are unable to account for membrane dynamics and stochasticity. Nevertheless, it is now well established that the spatio-temporal organization of its components is crucial for cellular functions.Thus, during my PhD thesis I aimed to study both the dynamics and partitioning of CD82 and its partners at the plasma membrane of HB2 mammary cells. To achieve this aim, a TIRF-based Single Molecule Tracking (SMT) approach was employed to provide direct nanoscale insights by observing individual proteins in living cells. Our SMT experiments demonstrated that CD82 overexpression increased CD81 dynamics at the plasma membrane of HB2 cells and modified its interaction within the tetraspanin web. In contrast, CD9 and α3 integrin dynamics were not modified by CD82 expression. Moreover, by enzymatically tuning gangliosides expression, we showed that these lipids are involved in both dynamics and partitioning of tetraspanins at the plasma membrane. Indeed, gangliosides depletion resulted in an increase in CD82, CD81 and α3 integrin dynamics as well as a redistribution of tetraspanins at the plasma membrane. We also investigated the 2D migration of HB2 cells showing that CD82 and gangliosides differentially altered the cellular migration of HB2 cells.Taken together, our results demonstrate that both CD82 and gangliosides differentially modulate the dynamics and partitioning of tetraspanins and their partners at the plasma membrane of HB2 cells. Finally, this work suggests that CD82 activity as metastasis suppressor could be in part linked to its ability, in cooperation with gangliosides, to modulate the spatio-temporal organization of its partners within the tetraspanin web.