Thesis (M.S.)--University of Michigan, 1963.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Michigan, 1963.

Dysregulation of apoptosis during development is a possible mechanism for teratogen-induced birth defects. Neural tube defects (NTDs) are the second most common fetal malformations. Non-specific stimulation of maternal immune system prevents birth defects. This study investigated the role of dysregulated apoptosis in formation of NTDs from two teratogens: valproic acid (VA) and an unknown teratogen found in tap water. Interferon- γ (IFN γ) was used to stimulate maternal immunity to evaluate the role of altered apoptosis in this protective mechanism. Apoptosis was evaluated using flow cytometry, Terminal Transferase dUTP Nick End Labeling (TUNEL) assay and gene expression changes by RT2 Profiler PCR arrays. Additionally, changes in the expression of key signal transduction pathway genes that play a role in development were determined. Increased apoptosis, suggesting involvement in VA teratogenicity, was observed along the neural tube in both normal and abnormal embryos from VA-exposed dams. Increased apoptosis in normal VA-exposed embryos suggests that VA may alter other cellular processes such as cell proliferation and differentiation in addition to apoptosis. Apoptotic percentages in embryos with NTDs from IFNγ+VA dams were similar to controls, which indicated resistance to teratogen-induced apoptosis. In IFNγ+VA-exposed embryos with NTDs, immune stimulation failed to prevent apoptosis. VA initiated both death and survival signaling in the embryos; however, upregulation of the apoptotic genes and down regulation of anti-apoptotic genes of p53 and Bcl2 family tended to shift the balance towards death signaling. This change in gene expression patterns could result in increased apoptosis and NTDs in VA-exposed embryos. Immune stimulation normalized changes in the expression of pro-apoptotic signaling molecules. These results suggest immune stimulation protects embryos from teratogenicity of VA by preventing VA-induced apoptosis. VA altered the hedgehog, Wnt, retinoic acid and fibronectin signaling pathways in embryos with NTDs. These results suggest that VA also disrupted signaling pathways required for various morphogenic events during organogenesis. Immune stimulation normalized the expression of Fn1 and Hspb1 and thus may mediate protection through these signaling pathways. In tap water exposed embryos, no change in apoptotic pattern was observed by flow cytometry, TUNEL assay and RT-PCR. Also, none of the signal transduction pathway genes tested were significantly altered in tap water-exposed embryos. This suggests that apoptosis is not a mechanism for teratogenicity resulting from exposure to the contaminant in tap water. / Ph. D.

L’écotoxicité de nanoparticules de dioxyde de cérium (CeO2 NP) en milieu dulçaquicole a été évaluée à l’aide (i) d’essais monospécifiques standardisés et (ii) de chaînes trophiques expérimentales exposées en microcosme. Aucune toxicité n’a été observée chez Nitzschia palea et Chironomus riparius en conditions monopsécifiques. Une inhibition de croissance a été observée chez les amphibiens Xenopus laevis et Pleurodeles waltl., ainsi qu’une toxicité aiguë chez le xénope et une génotoxicité dose-dépendante chez le pleurodèle. Les expositions en microcosme ont mis en évidence une toxicité aiguë chez le pleurodèle, des modifications des communautés bactériennes, une diminution de la décomposition de la litière, ainsi que des effets tératogènes chez le chironome. Les effets observés varient suivant la nature des CeO2 NP étudiées. L’utilisation d’un système biologique complexe permet l’étude des mécanismes de toxicité dans des conditions plus représentatives des conditions environnementales. / The ecotoxicity of cerium dioxide nanoparticles (CeO2 NPs) was studied on freshwater organisms (i) in standardized monospecific conditions and (ii) on experimental trophic chains exposed in microcosms. No toxicity was observed on Nitzschia palea and Chironomus riparius in monospecific conditions. Growth inhibition was observed on the amphibian species Xenopus laevis and Pleurodeles waltl., as well as acute toxicity and dose-dependent genotoxicity observed on Xenopus and Pleurodeles, respectively. Microcosm experiments revealed acute effects on Pleurodeles, changes in bacterial communities, a decrease in leaf litter decomposition and teratogenicity on chironomids. The observed effects vary depending on the type of CeO2 NPs. The use of complex biological system enables the study of toxicity mechanisms in environmentally relevant conditions.

A Organização Mundial da Saúde revela que mais de 20 milhões de crianças nascem com baixo peso ao nascimento em todo o mundo, sendo a má nutrição o principal fator desencadeante. Estudos realizados nas duas últimas décadas mostram que o status nutricional materno pode ser crítico no desenvolvimento de teratogenicidade; porém não há trabalhos que comprovem a associação entre restrição alimentar materna e a ocorrência de malformações. No entanto, o conceito de teratogênese não se restringe apenas às malformações estruturais logo após o nascimento, também são consideradas alterações funcionais, como aquelas comportamentais ou no sistema imune, entre outras, que podem se manifestar somente na maturação pós-natal. Assim, o presente trabalho visou verificar os efeitos da restrição alimentar materna durante a gestação, avaliando-a por meio tanto do protocolo clássico de teratogenicidade, como através de protocolos de imunoteratologia, analisando-se neste caso, as possíveis alterações no sistema imune da prole após o desmame e também na idade adulta. Foram empregadas ratas Wistar prenhes, divididas em cinco grupos iguais, um controle (CO) no qual os animais receberam ração ad libitum, e nos demais grupos, as fêmeas foram submetidas à restrição alimentar, do 6º ao 17º dia de gestação, diminuindo-se em 15 (E15), 40 (E40), 55 (E55) e 70% (E70) da quantidade de ração consumida pelos animais do grupo CO. Por meio do protocolo clássico de teratogenicidade, verificaram-se as possíveis alterações ósseas e viscerais sobre a prole. Empregou-se ainda o protocolo de imunoteratologia, no qual foram realizados testes nas proles tanto ao desmame como na idade adulta, e aferiu-se os seguintes parâmetros: hemograma, peso relativo do timo e do baço, celularidade do baço e da medula óssea; a imunidade inata: atividade de macrófagos peritoneais por meio da fagocitose, produção de peróxido de hidrogênio e óxido nítrico; a imunidade humoral: produção de anticorpos pelo ensaio do plaque forming cell e a titulação de anticorpos anti-eritrócitos de carneiro; e a imunidade celular: avaliação da hipersensibilidade tardia. Em relação às avaliações teratogênicas clássicas, estas mostraram haver, naqueles filhotes provenientes das ratas submetidas às restrições alimentares (E40, E55 e E70), diminuição no peso ao nascimento, aumento da proporção de fetos mortos até uma hora após o nascimento e aumento do número de fetos com ureter sinuoso; no entanto, não foi constatada a ocorrência de malformações graves, que pudessem colocar em risco a vida do concepto. Já as avaliações pós-natais revelaram diminuição no ganho de peso, do nascimento até a idade adulta, das proles provenientes das ratas do grupo E70. Em relação às alterações imunoteratogênicas, houve aumento no peso relativo do timo e da resposta imune celular nas proles destas mães submetidas à maior restrição alimentar, quando estes animais foram avaliados aos 21 dias de idade. Quando realizou-se este estudo nas proles com 70 dias (idade adulta), os filhotes provenientes de mães das diferentes restrições alimentares apresentaram aumento da resposta imune humoral; além disto aqueles filhotes de mães E70, mostraram aumento da resposta imune celular. Os dados apresentados na presente pesquisa permitem sugerir que a restrição alimentar em ratas Wistar durante a organogênese fetal, embora não promova malformações estruturais, produz prole de menor peso ao nascimento e é capaz de gerar alterações significantes no sistema imune dos filhotes. / The World Health Organization has reported that more than 20 million children worldwide are born with low birth weight, with malnutrition the main triggering factor. Studies in the past two decades have shown that maternal nutritional status may be critical in the development of teratogenicity, but there are no studies that directly relate maternal feed restriction and malformation. However, teratogenecity is not restricted only to structural abnormalities at birth, but may also include functional changes, such as behavioral or immune system alterations, among others, which may manifest themselves only in the postnatal period of maturation. Thus, this work aimed to assess the effects of maternal food restriction in pregnant rats using classical and immunoteratogenic protocols to evaluate the offspring. Thus, possible immune system changes were evaluated in the offspring after weaning and after maturation. Pregnant females were divided into five groups, a control group (CO) in which the animals received feed ad libitum, and four other groups, in which females were fed a restricted amount based on the total ingested by controls: 15% (E15), 40% (E40), 55% (E55) and 70% (E70) during days 6 to 17 of gestation. Rats were humanely euthanized and teratogenicity was evaluated using skeletal and visceral measurements. Immunoteratogenic effects were determined in weaned and mature offspring (10 weeks) using blood, thymus and spleen relative weights and spleen and bone marrow cellularity. In addition, innate immunity was determined using activity of peritoneal macrophages through phagocytosis, and production of hydrogen peroxide and nitric oxide. Humoral immunity was determined using production of antibodies by the plaque-forming cell assay and titers of anti-sheep red blood cells. Cellular immunity was determined by evaluating delayed type hypersensitivity. Traditional teratogenic indices showed that pups from females subjected to feed restriction (E40, E55 and E70) had a decrease in birth weight, an increased proportion of dead fetuses up to one hour after birth, and an increase in the number of fetuses with kinked ureter. No major malformations serious enough to threaten the life of the conceptus were observed. There was a postnatal decrease in weight gain in offspring from mothers of group E70 from birth to adulthood. There was also immune system changes, with an increase in the thymus relative weight (E40, E55, E70) and cellular immune response in offspring (21 days of age). When offspring were evaluated after maturation, those pups from mothers with feed restriction had increased humoral immune responses; in addition offspring from the E70 group showed an increase in cellular immune response. The data presented in this study suggest that feed restriction in Wistar rats during organogenesis does not promote structural malformations, but instead results in offspring with lower birth weights, and also promoted significant changes in the immune system of rat pups.

Nos últimos anos, a prescrição e o consumo de medicamentos psicotrópicos vêm aumentando ao redor do mundo, crescendo assim a presença destes compostos em efluentes. Embora os esgotos domésticos e hospitalares em geral sejam encaminhados para as Estações de Tratamento de Esgotos (ETEs), o tratamento convencional aplicado não é eficiente na remoção da maioria dos fármacos e, consequentemente, estes poluentes alcançam os corpos hídricos. Frente a essas informações, é importante entender os possíveis danos causados tanto para seres humanos, como para o ecossistema como um todo, após a exposição a esses fármacos, por meio da água contaminada. Desta maneira, nossa hipótese é que os fármacos psicotrópicos presentes em amostras de água possam induzir a danos neuronais e no desenvolvimento de organismos não alvo, como peixes. Para responder a esta hipótese, avaliamos os efeitos teratogêncios e neurotóxicos de fármacos psicotrópicos como venlafaxina, haloperidol, carbamazepina e fluoxetina, por meio da análise de parâmetros de letalidade e sub-letalidade nos em Danio rerio, visando a determinação dos possíveis efeitos teratogênicos. Adicionalmente, utilizamos a determinação da atividade da enzima acetilcolinesterase como biomarcador de neurotoxicidade em larvas, após a exposição dos embriões e a avaliação do padrão de movimentação. Os fármacos foram testados individualmente e em misturas, para avaliar os efeitos da co-exposição, simulando um cenário mais real de contaminação aquática. Os resultados mostraram que os fármacos carbamazepina e venlafaxina não apresentaram nenhum dos efeitos analizados de forma estatisticamente significativa. Já os fármacos haloperidol e fluoxetina, mesmo não apresentando efeito sobre a teratogenicidade e movimentação, provocaram um aumento na atividade enzimática, em doses consideradas bastante baixas. Considerando que esta estimulação inicial voltou a níveis próximos ao controle negativo e, no caso da fluoxetina, um estudo inibição da atividade em doses mais altas, sugerimos a manifestação de hormesis. A mistura dos fármacos não apresentou efeito significativo nas avaliações realizadas, mostrando que o aumento da atividade enzimática dfoi antagonizado na quando em mistura. Nosso trabalho mostra a importância do estudo de toxicidade em doses baixas, para que uma correta avaliação do risco seja possível. / In the last years, the prescription and use of psychotropic drugs have being increasing around the world, consequently the discharge of these drugs and their metabolites have also increased in wastewater. Considering the presence in the environment and the toxic effects to target and non target species, these compounds were classified as emerging water contaminants. The main sources of these compounds are the domestic and hospital treated effluents, because the conventional treatment applied by effluent treatment plants is not efficient to remove most of drugs, and consequently these pollutants reach the water bodies. In this context, it is important to understand the possible damages to humans and ecosystems after exposure to these drugs through contaminated water. In that way, the hypothesis of this research is that psychotropic drugs present in water samples could induce neurologic and development damages in non-target organisms, such as fish. Therefore, we propose the evaluation of teratogenic and neurotoxic effects of the psychotropic drugs Fluoxetine, Carbamazepine, Venlafaxine and Haloperidol using the determination of the activity of cholinesterase enzyme as biomarker of neurotoxicity in larvae, after the exposure of Danio rerio eggs. Lethality and sub-lethality parameters will be also analyzed in the same organisms to establish the potential of teratogenic effects, the movement analysis was also performed. These drugs will be tested individually and in mixtures to evaluate the effects of coexposure simulating a real scenario of water pollution. Carbamazepine and venlafaxine don\'t responde with significant results in any of these evaluations. Haloperidol and Fluoxetine presented negative results in teratogenic and moviment effects, but they incresed the activity of acetylcholinesterase enzime, this result was different from another study, that these drugs in highest concentrations decrease this activity, so it can indicate the presence of hormesis effect. However, the mixtures of drugs don\'t present any significant effect on all evaluations, this result can suggest that these effects caused by haloperidol and fluoxetine on the enzime activity were canceled, it can be a interaction of antagonist effects on the mixtures.

A Organização Mundial da Saúde revela que mais de 20 milhões de crianças nascem com baixo peso ao nascimento em todo o mundo, sendo a má nutrição o principal fator desencadeante. Estudos realizados nas duas últimas décadas mostram que o status nutricional materno pode ser crítico no desenvolvimento de teratogenicidade; porém não há trabalhos que comprovem a associação entre restrição alimentar materna e a ocorrência de malformações. No entanto, o conceito de teratogênese não se restringe apenas às malformações estruturais logo após o nascimento, também são consideradas alterações funcionais, como aquelas comportamentais ou no sistema imune, entre outras, que podem se manifestar somente na maturação pós-natal. Assim, o presente trabalho visou verificar os efeitos da restrição alimentar materna durante a gestação, avaliando-a por meio tanto do protocolo clássico de teratogenicidade, como através de protocolos de imunoteratologia, analisando-se neste caso, as possíveis alterações no sistema imune da prole após o desmame e também na idade adulta. Foram empregadas ratas Wistar prenhes, divididas em cinco grupos iguais, um controle (CO) no qual os animais receberam ração ad libitum, e nos demais grupos, as fêmeas foram submetidas à restrição alimentar, do 6º ao 17º dia de gestação, diminuindo-se em 15 (E15), 40 (E40), 55 (E55) e 70% (E70) da quantidade de ração consumida pelos animais do grupo CO. Por meio do protocolo clássico de teratogenicidade, verificaram-se as possíveis alterações ósseas e viscerais sobre a prole. Empregou-se ainda o protocolo de imunoteratologia, no qual foram realizados testes nas proles tanto ao desmame como na idade adulta, e aferiu-se os seguintes parâmetros: hemograma, peso relativo do timo e do baço, celularidade do baço e da medula óssea; a imunidade inata: atividade de macrófagos peritoneais por meio da fagocitose, produção de peróxido de hidrogênio e óxido nítrico; a imunidade humoral: produção de anticorpos pelo ensaio do plaque forming cell e a titulação de anticorpos anti-eritrócitos de carneiro; e a imunidade celular: avaliação da hipersensibilidade tardia. Em relação às avaliações teratogênicas clássicas, estas mostraram haver, naqueles filhotes provenientes das ratas submetidas às restrições alimentares (E40, E55 e E70), diminuição no peso ao nascimento, aumento da proporção de fetos mortos até uma hora após o nascimento e aumento do número de fetos com ureter sinuoso; no entanto, não foi constatada a ocorrência de malformações graves, que pudessem colocar em risco a vida do concepto. Já as avaliações pós-natais revelaram diminuição no ganho de peso, do nascimento até a idade adulta, das proles provenientes das ratas do grupo E70. Em relação às alterações imunoteratogênicas, houve aumento no peso relativo do timo e da resposta imune celular nas proles destas mães submetidas à maior restrição alimentar, quando estes animais foram avaliados aos 21 dias de idade. Quando realizou-se este estudo nas proles com 70 dias (idade adulta), os filhotes provenientes de mães das diferentes restrições alimentares apresentaram aumento da resposta imune humoral; além disto aqueles filhotes de mães E70, mostraram aumento da resposta imune celular. Os dados apresentados na presente pesquisa permitem sugerir que a restrição alimentar em ratas Wistar durante a organogênese fetal, embora não promova malformações estruturais, produz prole de menor peso ao nascimento e é capaz de gerar alterações significantes no sistema imune dos filhotes. / The World Health Organization has reported that more than 20 million children worldwide are born with low birth weight, with malnutrition the main triggering factor. Studies in the past two decades have shown that maternal nutritional status may be critical in the development of teratogenicity, but there are no studies that directly relate maternal feed restriction and malformation. However, teratogenecity is not restricted only to structural abnormalities at birth, but may also include functional changes, such as behavioral or immune system alterations, among others, which may manifest themselves only in the postnatal period of maturation. Thus, this work aimed to assess the effects of maternal food restriction in pregnant rats using classical and immunoteratogenic protocols to evaluate the offspring. Thus, possible immune system changes were evaluated in the offspring after weaning and after maturation. Pregnant females were divided into five groups, a control group (CO) in which the animals received feed ad libitum, and four other groups, in which females were fed a restricted amount based on the total ingested by controls: 15% (E15), 40% (E40), 55% (E55) and 70% (E70) during days 6 to 17 of gestation. Rats were humanely euthanized and teratogenicity was evaluated using skeletal and visceral measurements. Immunoteratogenic effects were determined in weaned and mature offspring (10 weeks) using blood, thymus and spleen relative weights and spleen and bone marrow cellularity. In addition, innate immunity was determined using activity of peritoneal macrophages through phagocytosis, and production of hydrogen peroxide and nitric oxide. Humoral immunity was determined using production of antibodies by the plaque-forming cell assay and titers of anti-sheep red blood cells. Cellular immunity was determined by evaluating delayed type hypersensitivity. Traditional teratogenic indices showed that pups from females subjected to feed restriction (E40, E55 and E70) had a decrease in birth weight, an increased proportion of dead fetuses up to one hour after birth, and an increase in the number of fetuses with kinked ureter. No major malformations serious enough to threaten the life of the conceptus were observed. There was a postnatal decrease in weight gain in offspring from mothers of group E70 from birth to adulthood. There was also immune system changes, with an increase in the thymus relative weight (E40, E55, E70) and cellular immune response in offspring (21 days of age). When offspring were evaluated after maturation, those pups from mothers with feed restriction had increased humoral immune responses; in addition offspring from the E70 group showed an increase in cellular immune response. The data presented in this study suggest that feed restriction in Wistar rats during organogenesis does not promote structural malformations, but instead results in offspring with lower birth weights, and also promoted significant changes in the immune system of rat pups.

Bibliography: leaves [11-1]-11-19 / 1 v. (various pagings) : ill ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, 1987

Diabetic embryopathy is a major complication of pregnant women with type I diabetes. Immune defects in the pathogenesis of diabetic embryopathy have been suggested. We hypothesized that activated immune system can counteract diabetic effect and result in prevention of diabetic embryopathy. Diabetes was induced in pregnant ICR mice by streptozocin injection. Three different techniques of maternal immune stimulation, complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), or interferon-gamma (IFN-g), were used to stimulate the maternal immune system. Approximately 50% of fetuses from hyperglycemic (>27 mM/L) dams were malformed, with neural tube defects predominating. Maternal immune stimulation during the time of normoglycemia, i.e. prior to onset of hyperglycemia, was necessary for reducing teratogenic effects associated with hyperglycemia. The immune-stimulated diabetic mice then produced significantly lower numbers of malformed fetuses: CFA 20.9%, GM-CSF 23.3%, IFN-g 13.9%. A gene microarray was then used to examine a selected panel of placental and splenic genes. We hypothesized that a shared profile of placental or splenic gene expression changes may correlate to the reduced birth defect outcome induced by the different immune stimulation procedures. Diabetes did not cause significant changes in placenta or spleen gene expression profile. In placenta, CFA and GM-CSF changed placental gene expression relative to control or diabetes, but differentially affected such genes relative to each other; further, IFN-g did not affect gene expression relative to control or diabetes. Thus no common pattern of improved placental cytokine, cell-cycle, apoptotic, transcription factor, or other gene expression was identified in the immune-stimulated mice. In spleen, all 3 immune activators produced a common altered gene expression profile. The overall gene expression profile after all immune stimulation procedures suggested increased splenocyte activity and cytokine production. The cytokine GM-CSF, in particular, was up-regulated in splenic leukocytes. This cytokine has previously been associated with reduced cleft palate in urethane-exposed mice after immune stimulation, and with reduced limb malformations in cyclophosphamide-treated mice after intra-uterine administration. In contrast, the TGF-beta3 gene was down-regulated in immune-stimulated diabetic mice. This gene was up-regulated in urethane-exposed mice, an effect that may be associated with reduced cleft palate. Thus unlike urethane, TGF-beta3 gene expression did not show a relationship with reduced diabetes-induced birth defects. Taken together, these data prove our hypotheses and suggest that mechanistically diverse forms of immune activation result in protection against diabetes-related teratogenesis, but only if given prior to onset of hyperglycemia. Such immune stimulation in mice may act through systemic immune organs, i.e. spleen, over-riding adverse effects of diabetes on development. / Ph. D.

microRNAs (miRNAs), ~21-24 nucleotide-long RNAs that post-transcriptionally regulate gene expression, have rapidly become one of the most extensively studied mechanisms of the past decade. Since their discovery as temporal regulators of post-embryonic development in C. elegans, miRNAs have been functionally implicated in almost every cellular process investigated to date. miRNAs are integral to the complex biological processes of embryonic development and aging. In this research, we sought to determine whether misregulation of miRNAs could be responsible for eliciting adverse effects during these two distinct developmental stages. First, to uncover the potential role of miRNAs in teratogenicity, we investigated whether miRNAs were involved in regulation of retinoic acid (RA) induced vertebrate axis defects. Global miRNA expression profiling revealed that RA exposure suppressed the expression of miR-19 family members during zebrafish somitogenesis. Bioinformatics analyses predict that miR-19 targets cyp26a1, a key RA detoxifying enzyme, and a physiological reporter assay confirmed that cyp26a1 is a bona fide target of miR-19. Transient knockdown of miR-19 phenocopied RA-induced body axis defects. In gain-of-function studies, exogenous miR-19 rescued the axis defects caused by RA exposure. Our findings indicate that the teratogenic effects of RA exposure result, in part, from repression of miR-19 and the subsequent misregulation of cyp26a1. This highlights a previously unidentified role of miR-19 in facilitating vertebrate axis development. Next, to explore whether age-related changes in miRNAs trigger deficits in regeneration capacity, we performed mRNA and small RNA sequencing on regenerating and non-regenerating caudal fin tissue from aged, adult and juvenile zebrafish. An unbiased approach identified cbx7 as the most abundant transcript with significantly increased expression in regenerative-competent adult and juvenile tissue and decreased expression in regenerative-compromised aged tissue. While cbx7 is a known regulator of aging, this is the first report of its role in tissue regeneration. A computational approach was used to discover mRNAs expressed during regeneration, which are potential targets of the significantly expressed miRNAs in regenerating tissue. miR-21 was one of the most abundant and significantly increased miRNAs in regenerating tissue and exhibited an aberrant age-dependent expression profile. Bioinformatics predicts miR-21 to target the 3' UTR of cbx7 and a reporter assay confirmed that miR-21 targets cbx7 in vivo. Transient knockdown of miR-21 inhibited tissue regeneration, suggesting a role for miRNA mediated regulation of cbx7 during regeneration. These findings reveal a novel, age-dependent regenerative function of cbx7 and emphasize the importance of miR-21 as a master regulator of vertebrate regenerative responses. This research, when combined, underscores the negative consequences misregulation of miRNAs has on embryonic development and aging. / Graduation date: 2013 / Access restricted to the OSU Community at author's request from Dec. 5, 2012 - Dec. 5, 2013