Eutrophication is of interest in the field of water quality. Eutrophic lakes, when used as sources for drinking water, can cause problems during the treatment process, for example algae blooms can clog filters, requiring more water and energy to be used during the cleaning and backwashing of the filters. Excess nutrient loading and eutrophication can also harm fish and aquatic life habitats. Certain species of algae and cyanobacteria can be toxic to humans as well. Since 1998, Dr. A. Woodruff Miller has collected water samples from 46 lakes and ponds in Yellowstone National Park. The Carlson Trophic State Index, the Vollenweider Model, the Larsen Mercier Model, the Burns Trophic Level Index, and the Naumann Trophic Scale were then used to assign each lake or pond to a trophic state classification (Oligotrophic, Mesotrophic, Eutrophic, and Hyper-Eutrophic). Of the 46 total lakes and ponds that have been tested over the past 14 years, five lakes are classified as slightly oligotrophic, implying that the waters are relatively clear and free from nutrient pollution. Of the 46 lakes, 19 are classified as slightly mesotrophic, mesotrophic, or strongly mesotrophic. These classifications imply that the waters are moderately clear and contain some nutrient pollution. Of the 46 lakes, 14 are classified as slightly eutrophic, eutrophic, or strongly eutrophic. This implies that the waters have high turbidity and nutrient content. Of the 46 lakes, 8 are classified as slightly hyper-eutrophic or hyper-eutrophic. These lakes are noticeable for their high algae content with very high nutrient content. These classifications are based on the most recent year sampled.

Arches National Park, located in southeastern Utah, lies in a transition zone between the southwestern hot desert and the western cold desert, but it is floristically most similar to the hot desert. The major plant communities are as follows: Juniper-pinyon, blackbrush, grasslands and sand dune association. Other community types occur but occupy very limited areas. All of the communities studied have a high degree of uniqueness and merit recognition as separate entities. Blackbrush showed the greatest overall similarity to other communities and was most similar to the sand dune communities. The hanging gardens were the most distinctive and covered the smallest area of the communities present in the Park. Cluster analysis placed blackbrush, sand dunes and juniper-pinyon on the xeric end of a moisture gradient and streamsides and hanging gardens on the mesic end.

This thesis is concerned with the characteristics and development of scree slopes, as illustrated by examples from a small alpine valley. The major controls of scree slope development and processes are discussed with special emphasis on rockfalls and snow avalanches. The results of debris accumulation measurements on networks of cleaned boulders and polyethelene squares at seven screes from 1968-1972 are presented and discussed. The techniques are suggested as a valid means of measuring debris accumulation by avalanches. The surface sedimentary characteristics of five screes are examined in detail with particular emphasis on size sorting at various levels over the scree and possible relationships between sedimentary characteristics and sorting. Detail of the profile form of these screes is also given and the avalanche modification of screes discussed. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Regional and local changes in the climate have been driving rapid glacial retreat in many glaciers since the Little Ice Age. This retreat provides a unique opportunity to study succession across the chronosequences of glacier forelands. Patterns of plant colonization and succession on terrain exposed by retreating glaciers give insight into factors influencing alpine ecosystem change and recovery. Understanding these patterns and processes is important for conserving alpine landscapes and flora as glaciers disappear. This study sought to investigate how various biotic and abiotic factors influence plant successional patterns in the dynamic alpine environment of Sperry Glacier, a Little Ice Age, mid-latitude cirque glacier in Glacier National Park, Montana. Through field data collection, additional Geographic Information System (GIS) derived variables, and subsequent geostatistical analysis, I specifically assessed: (1.) vegetative trends (percent cover, species richness, Shannon's diversity, species evenness, composition, and species turnover) over a 170-year chronosequence, and (2.) vegetative trends over field and GIS-derived site conditions (e.g., surface fragmentation, concavity, flow accumulation, and solar irradiance). Sixty-one plots (each 8 square meters) were placed throughout the glacier foreland using a random sample stratified by terrain date. Percent cover, species richness, Shannon's diversity, and species evenness were calculated for each plot. All sampled vegetation was identified with taxonomic resolution down to species whenever possible. I assessed vegetative trends across terrain age ranges using Kruskal-Wallis and Dunn's tests. I used two models, generalized linear models (GLMs) and Classification and Regression Trees (CARTs), to assess field and GIS-derived biophysical correlates (e.g., surface fragmentation, concavity, terrain variables, and solar irradiance with vegetative trends), followed by Kruskal-Wallis tests, Dunn's tests, and scatterplots. Species richness and vegetation cover were greater on older terrain. Plant composition changed over terrain age, with Penstemon ellipticus favoring older terrain and Boechera lemmonii favoring moderately aged terrain. Moderate drainage and concave plots, which were important in the GLMs, explained increased species richness and Shannon's diversity across different site conditions. The CARTs were able to predict species richness, vegetation cover, Shannon's diversity, and species evenness with surface fragment sized from gravel to cobble, topographic position index, and flow accumulation. These findings show that both temporal and biophysical site conditions influence successional trends across the foreland, though different vegetation measures are most influenced differently. / Master of Science / Regional and local changes in the climate have been driving rapid glacial retreat in many glaciers since the Little Ice Age. This retreat provides a unique opportunity to study succession across glacier foreland terrain that has been uncovered for different lengths of time. Patterns of plant colonization and succession on terrain exposed by retreating glaciers give insight into factors influencing alpine ecosystem change and recovery. Understanding these patterns and processes is important for conserving alpine landscapes and flora as glaciers disappear. This study sought to investigate how various biotic and abiotic factors influence plant successional patterns in the dynamic alpine environment of Sperry Glacier, a Little Ice Age, mid-latitude glacier in Glacier National Park, Montana. Through field data collection, additional Geographic Information System (GIS) derived variables, and subsequent geostatistical analysis, I specifically assessed: (1.) vegetative trends (percent cover, species richness, Shannon's diversity, species evenness, composition, and species turnover) over terrain uncovered between zero and 170-year, and (2.) vegetative trends over field and GIS-derived site conditions (e.g., surface fragmentation, concavity, flow accumulation, and solar irradiance). Sixty-one plots (each 8 square meters) were randomly placed within each terrain age range throughout the glacier foreland. Percent cover, species richness, Shannon's diversity, and species evenness were calculated for each plot. Shannon's diversity is a measurement of a community's diversity and uses both species richness and evenness to calculate diversity. All sampled vegetation was identified with taxonomic resolution down to species whenever possible. I assessed vegetative trends across terrain age using several statistical comparison tests. I used two types of statistical models to assess field and GIS-derived biophysical correlates (e.g., surface fragmentation, concavity, terrain variables, and solar irradiance with vegetative trends), followed by comparison tests and scatterplots. Species richness and vegetation cover were greater on older terrain. Plant composition changed over terrain age, with the species Penstemon ellipticus (rocky ledge penstemon) favoring older terrain and Boechera lemmonii (Lemmon's rockcress) favoring moderately aged terrain. Moderate drainage and concave plots explained increased species richness and Shannon's diversity across different site conditions. Species richness, vegetation cover, Shannon's diversity, and species evenness could be predicted with surface fragments sized from gravel to cobble, topographic position index, and flow accumulation. These findings show that both temporal and biophysical site conditions influence successional trends across the foreland, though different vegetation measures are most influenced differently.

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Research was conducted in three areas of water quality assessment. Long term ecological monitoring data from Shenandoah National Park (SNP) were analyzed and a protocol for data analysis was presented. Streams in SNP were found to be comparable to the best that can be found in the Blue Ridge ecoregion. Land use in SNP (mostly for recreational purposes) does not appear to be causing impairment to the macroinvertebrate assemblages. Streams in the SNP were found to recover quickly from disturbance. The Macroinvertebrate Aggregated Index for Streams (MAIS) was found to have an overall classification efficiency (CE) of 86% in the Ridge and Valley ecoregion, and an overall CE of 91% in the Central Appalachians ecoregion. Refinement of the MAIS for use in the Blue Ridge ecoregion resulted in an increase of the overall CE to 78%. The CE for reference sites in the Blue Ridge was 75%, and the CE for degraded sites was 87%. An intensive study of a stream (Peak Creek) with suspected heavy metal impairment showed that capping of an industrial waste site has resulted in improvements to the macroinvertebrate assemblages. The source of the impairment was not linked solely to heavy metals, but was found to be a mixture of pollution sources and environmental stress. / Ph. D.

The Northern Rocky Mountains, home to the highest concentration of glaciers in the American West, are undergoing increased rates of climate warming, resulting in previously unseen ecological and hydrological outcomes. Globally, many glacier basins have experienced glacial recession to the threshold point of surpassing peak basin runoff, resulting in substantial decreases in local hydrological yield. Such findings call for models that do not alone examine glacial runoff but a complete examination of changes in the water budget. Alpine catchments are increasingly vulnerable to evapotranspirative losses due to climatic warming, and the rates of vegetation succession are often unable to keep up with the rate of warming. Basin scale analyses of glacial recession on streamflow are then confounded by ecohydrologic dynamics created by primary succession and the associated increase in evapotranspiration. In this study, I present a conceptual framework for modelling basin runoff in landscapes responding to paraglacial adjustment. The study goal was achieved by calibrating and running the Hydrologiska Byråns Vattenbalansavdelning (HBV) model in Swiftcurrent basin and investigating change across the basin water balance through baseflow analysis. The research findings indicate catchment scale changes in the timing and magnitude of the flow regime in the deglaciating Swiftcurrent basin, by employing HBV and empirical baseflow analysis. While most components of the water balance appear consistent across the study period, late summer baseflow values suggest the basin hydrology is undergoing changes, possibly a result of melt occurring earlier in the season. Ultimately, I advocate for an adaptable and accessible approach to understanding paraglacial basins by constructing an estimation of basin-scale water budgets. / Master of Science / Large scale trends in climate change are impacting a variety of ecosystems, especially alpine environments. Glacial recession has been well documented and studied in mountain chains across the globe, including the Rocky Mountains. Recession of these massive bodies of ice, which can be viewed as reservoirs of water in droughts or low flow months, has severe implications for society, the economy, and sensitive mountain environments. Furthermore, the new terrain exposed from beneath the melting glacier is dynamic and will undergo many adjustments geomorphically, in soil development, and ecologically as plants move up the glacier foreland. Ecological systems experiencing warming, deglaciation, and vegetation succession are not well understood and are complex environments due to the multiple inputs, interactions, and feedbacks. As such, this research examines how hydrologic conditions across a forty year period are changing in response to the complex feedbacks between glaciers, newly exposed terrain, and associated runoff. Through modeling and analysis, this study offers a method for understanding the water balance of Swiftcurrent basin in Glacier National Park, which can be used in other catchments experiencing similar changes.

The problem of petrified wood theft was examined in the Petrified Forest National Park. This study accomplished the following 2 objectives: 1. Perform a complete inventory throughout five high use areas at the Petrified Forest National Park 2. Quantify the petrified wood loss within the five high use areas at the Petrified Forest National Park over a one year time period. Line intersect sampling was used to sample three size classes of petrified wood along with fixed area quadrat samples which sampled two size classes. Line intersect sampling units were established in August 1993 and revisited during August 1994. Line Intersect sampling results suggest that petrified wood displacement within the park does occur but not to the extent that Scher (1990) reports. Quadrat sampling results are not conclusive with regard to petrified wood displacement due to constraints on the sample design. / Master of Science

The relation between prey density and brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis food consumption has not been quantified in natural streams. This relation may be most critical in the summer when southern Appalachian trout have demonstrated poor growth. It is not Known whether the poor growth is due to the low food densities or to excess temperatures and increased metabolic costs. Purposes of this study were to quantify the relation between prey density and food consumption in brook trout, identify how diel feeding and prey size selectivity by brook trout affect the relation, and to determine if slow growth in the summer was caused by low daily rations or other factors. Daily consumption was estimated in May, July and September of 1989, for four streams in Shenandoah National Park. Sampling was performed at 6-hour intervals over 24 hours. Adult and yearling trout did not consume more food at one specific time throughout the summer, but juvenile trout (< 100 mm) fed significantly less at night in both July and September. All sizes of fish selected for prey longer than 4mm. The best predictor of daily ration (corrected for temperature) over the summer was the number of prey longer than 4mm/m³. Models parameterized to quantify the relation between prey density and food consumption showed that adult trout were significantly more likely to have a higher daily ration per gram body weight (temperature and size corrected) than yearling trout at low ( < 1.0 prey longer than 4mm/m³) prey densities. Daily ration of juvenile trout was independent of prey abundance. The prey density-consumption relation was more consistent within streams than among streams, which suggests that habitat or population characteristics may influence the prey density-consumption relation. Trout had the most energy available for growth in July followed by May and then September. Daily ration was most dependent on temperature in May and on prey density in July and September. Juvenile trout did not decrease daily ration as much from July to September as did yearling and adult trout. All sizes of trout met maintenance costs in both early and late summer, yet yearling and adult trout did not grow in late summer although stream temperature was optimum for growth. Growth was negatively correlated with daily ration in the late summer, suggesting that activity costs may be more important in determining growth in late summer than prey densities. Activity costs varied substantially among streams. The effect of food consumption and habitat on activity costs needs to be defined to improve understanding of the determinants of growth in stream environments. / Master of Science