This thesis is an exploration into the modern meaning of the minimum dwelling. It discusses how this meaning gradually became disengaged from the minimum house. It proposes a new definition of the minimum dwelling based on the minimum social unit, that is, the individual. At the beginning of the 20th century, the term Existenzminimum dwelling proposed a new way of living. This modernist definition of the minimum dwelling was based on a reproducible expendable minimum house. This thesis argues that this definition is no longer valid; yet, any present definition of the minimum dwelling is still informed by it. The reconfiguration of the minimum house as an expendable object disempowered the house as a tool for the experience of the home. This dissociation of the house and the home is a condition that has gradually diminished the role of the house in everyday life and redefined the experience of the home. The meaning of the home is now invested in a multiplicity of locations, experiences and objects. This thesis defines the minimum home as a core of personally meaningful possessions, the spatial configurations they create and recreate and the information they carry. This thesis’s definition of the minimum dwelling is based on this minimum home. This argument is pursued through two modes of inquiry. On the one hand with a critical analysis of texts, buildings, architectural projects and works of art. On the other hand by the development of a series of projects. These two investigations are parallel and overlapping. In this document, they are organised in a linear way. This structure assists the progress of the argument and reveals the gradual development of this thesis from an interest to develop a truly individual minimum house to the realisation that the minimum dwelling is a personal project.

Increased risk for chronic disease is closely associated with individual nutrition, tobacco use, and physical inactivity. This thesis focuses on physical activity as a means of preventing select chronic diseases. A major barrier preventing engagement in physical activity is the built environment. Populations residing in rural environment are not afforded the abundance of opportunities for physical activity prevalent in most urban networks. Of the demographic living in rural environments, individuals with disability face additional barriers to physical activity than those without disability. This leads to a higher prevalence of chronic diseases associated with sedentary lifestyles among populations with disability. Few studies address the correlation between physical activity, chronic disease, and the built environment as they relate to individuals with disability. This thesis utilized independent samples t tests to evaluate variation among physical activity levels and the prevalence of chronic disease. In the first paper, four research objectives defined the parameters for comparison: (1) physical activity for individuals with disability in rural versus urban environments; (2) physical activity in rural environments for individuals with and without disability; (3) prevalence of chronic disease for individuals with disability in rural versus urban areas; and (4) prevalence of chronic disease in rural environments for individuals with and without disability. The four research objectives of the second paper are: (1) rural and urban physical activity comparison for the highest disability classification; (2) rural and urban physical activity comparison for individuals with disability using equipment; (3) rural and urban physical activity comparison for individuals with disability resulting from physical, mental, or emotional impairments; and (4) rural and urban physical activity comparison for individuals not reporting disability. The 2011 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) provided the data used to evaluate the correlation between these variables. The results of both studies indicate important statistical significance relating the rural built environment to lower levels of physical activity for individuals with disability. The varied statistical significance and small effect sizes, however, were contrary to the hypothesis and warrants further exploration of the complex relationship regarding the built environment, physical activity, and chronic disease.

Greenways (GW) can be sited to increase the potential for individuals to access the GW through active transit (AT) and provide opportunities for individuals to meet PA guidelines. PURPOSE: To determine if GWs, with varying AT access potential, relate to user characteristics and their GW-related PA. METHODS: A trail intercept survey measuring access mode, GW-specific PA, and demographics of GW users was administered to 611 adults on 2 GWs with high and low AT potential (GWhigh vs. GWlow). RESULTS: Users of GWhigh(N=216) compared to GWlow (N=400) were more likely to be younger, male, never married, employed, and affluent; accessing the GW via AT modes and accumulating greater volumes of GW-only and total GW-related PA (GW-only & AT PA). No difference in the proportion GW users meeting the 2008 PA Guidelines from GW-only PA was found however, 10.5% more users of GWhigh met the guidelines from total GW-related PA compared to GWlow (p=0.039). Users who accessed GWhigh by AT rather than cars were more likely to be not married (OR=2.6, 95% CI: 1.1 – 6.3), under 35 years old (OR=6.0, 95% CI: 1.9 – 19.26), live a mile from the GW (OR=5.39, 95% CI: 2.3 – 14.3). CONCLUSION: The profile of GW user and the way PA is acquired is related to the AT accessibility of GWs. Although PA levels of GWhigh users were significantly higher, GWlow usage was greater. Therefore, GW planners and designers should incorporate universal design concepts and conduct needs based assessments to properly site and design GWs to serve the greatest portion of the population.

The dissertation investigates how individual behaviors and health outcomes interplay with surrounding built environments, in three essays. We conceptually focus on travel behaviors and accessibility. In the first essay, we hypothesize that urban sprawl increases requisite travel time which limits leisure time available as inputs to health production. We utilize the American Time Use Survey to quantify decreases in health-related activity participation due to commuting time. We identify significant evidence of trade-offs between commuting time and exercise, food preparation, and sleep behaviors, which exceed labor time trade-offs on a per-minute basis. Longer commutes are additionally associated with an increased likelihood of non-grocery food purchases and substitution into less strenuous exercise activities. We also utilize daily metropolitan traffic accidents as instruments which exogenously lengthen a particular day’s commute. The second essay tests whether the likelihood of food insecurity and “paradoxical” joint insecurity-obesity occurrences vary over the degree of urban sprawl. We utilize data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System’s Social Context Module merged with urban sprawl measures developed by Smart Growth America. We find significantly negative associations between urban sprawl and the likelihood of food insecurity, and that insecurity is more likely in areas of less developed street connectivity. We find that joint outcomes are more likely in less sprawled areas and that likelihood is greater in areas of greater street connectivity, which fails to support theories proposing that healthy food inaccessibility is a determinant of joint outcomes. The third essay evaluates research claims that walking and cycling to school increases students’ physical activity levels in a predominantly urban sample. We utilize the third wave of the Survey of Adults and Youth–a geocoded dataset–to identify determinants of walking or cycling to school, and in turn to explore to what extent active travel impacts adolescents' weekly exercise levels. Consistent with the literature, we find that the distance between home and school is the largest influence on the travel mode decision. We also find no evidence that active travel increases the number of students’ weekly exercise sessions. These results suggest that previous findings may not extend to all environments or populations.

Background: The high prevalence of children and adolescents not meeting the recommended 60 minutes of physical activity (PA) per day and the associated negative health consequences make it critical to increase PA. Ecological models suggest that the school environment may influence student health behaviour. However, few studies have examined the school environment in relation to student PA. Purpose: To examine between-school variability in students’ time spent in PA, and identify factors of the school built environment that account for the between-school variability in students’ time spent in PA overall as well as by gender and school location, while also considering school physical education (PE) and PA programming and controlling for student-level characteristics and potential environment-level confounders. Methods: This thesis consisted of a secondary data analysis of the School Health Action, Planning and Evaluation System (SHAPES) Ontario project, which included self-report data from administrators and 25,416 students in 76 secondary schools across Ontario. The student- and school-level survey data were supplemented with GIS-derived measures of the built environment within 1-km buffers of the 76 schools. Multilevel modeling was used to examine between-school variability in students’ time spent in PA, as well as environment-level factors associated with PA. Results: There was significant between-school variability in students’ time spent in PA overall as well as by gender and school location, respectively. Schools having another room for PA and schools offering daily PE were positively associated with students’ PA. Schools located in areas with higher land-use mix diversity and walkability were negatively associated with students’ PA. Results of the gender-specific multilevel analyses indicated schools should consider providing another room for PA, especially for offering flexibility activities directed at female students. Schools should also consider offering daily PE to male students in senior grades. Students attending schools in urban and suburban areas that provided another room for PA or were located within close proximity to a shopping mall or fast food outlet spent more time in PA. Conclusions: These findings support the ecological notion that the school environment can influence student PA behaviour. A better understanding of the relationship between the school environment and PA will assist in the development of effective school-based policies, programs and interventions to increase PA.

Social ecological models of physical activity (PA) promotion embrace a wide range of factors and disciplines that may contribute to active living. Parks, trails, and recreation facilities have been acknowledged as important components of the built environment for promoting PA and overall health, but little research has investigated these community resources in detail. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the association between the presence and characteristics of parks and recreation amenities and PA levels of community members. The study involved four integrated components: i) a written questionnaire with 585 adult residents from four Waterloo planning districts that addressed a variety of personal, psychosocial, and environmental correlates of PA, ii) a detailed seven-day log booklet of recreational, transportation, household and job-related PA episodes, iii) objective assessment of PA via accelerometers, and iv) observation and rating of parks for their features that may be related to PA. Ratings of psychosocial characteristics (e.g., self-efficacy, social support) and perceptions of neighbourhood walkability attributes (e.g., land use diversity, street connectivity) were significantly different between those who engaged in some PA versus those who engaged in no PA, but neighbourhood perceptions did not moderate the relationship between psychosocial variables and PA, nor did psychosocial variables mediate the relationship between neighbourhood perceptions and PA. Parks and trails were used in approximately 8% and 3% of total PA episodes, respectively, with an average duration per episode of 49 minutes and 38 minutes, respectively. Parks with more facilities for PA and supporting amenities were more likely to be used for PA than parks with fewer facilities and amenities, and trails were the park feature most strongly related to park-based PA. The number of municipal parks within 1 km from participants’ homes the and total parkland area within 1 km were associated with higher odds of neighbourhood PA and neighbourhood park PA, while distance to the closest park from home was not related to either outcome. Although subject to several limitations, these results provide guidance for municipal and park planners in designing communities and the resources within them to promote increased levels of PA and active living. Suggestions for future research include studying environmental correlates of PA among youth and older adults, direct observation of PA in parks, and development of a comprehensive surveillance system to track both changes in the built environment and associated changes in residents’ PA participation.

Social ecological models of physical activity (PA) promotion embrace a wide range of factors and disciplines that may contribute to active living. Parks, trails, and recreation facilities have been acknowledged as important components of the built environment for promoting PA and overall health, but little research has investigated these community resources in detail. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the association between the presence and characteristics of parks and recreation amenities and PA levels of community members. The study involved four integrated components: i) a written questionnaire with 585 adult residents from four Waterloo planning districts that addressed a variety of personal, psychosocial, and environmental correlates of PA, ii) a detailed seven-day log booklet of recreational, transportation, household and job-related PA episodes, iii) objective assessment of PA via accelerometers, and iv) observation and rating of parks for their features that may be related to PA. Ratings of psychosocial characteristics (e.g., self-efficacy, social support) and perceptions of neighbourhood walkability attributes (e.g., land use diversity, street connectivity) were significantly different between those who engaged in some PA versus those who engaged in no PA, but neighbourhood perceptions did not moderate the relationship between psychosocial variables and PA, nor did psychosocial variables mediate the relationship between neighbourhood perceptions and PA. Parks and trails were used in approximately 8% and 3% of total PA episodes, respectively, with an average duration per episode of 49 minutes and 38 minutes, respectively. Parks with more facilities for PA and supporting amenities were more likely to be used for PA than parks with fewer facilities and amenities, and trails were the park feature most strongly related to park-based PA. The number of municipal parks within 1 km from participants’ homes the and total parkland area within 1 km were associated with higher odds of neighbourhood PA and neighbourhood park PA, while distance to the closest park from home was not related to either outcome. Although subject to several limitations, these results provide guidance for municipal and park planners in designing communities and the resources within them to promote increased levels of PA and active living. Suggestions for future research include studying environmental correlates of PA among youth and older adults, direct observation of PA in parks, and development of a comprehensive surveillance system to track both changes in the built environment and associated changes in residents’ PA participation.

An energy transition is currently taking place in many European countries. Existing studies comparing countries’ energy transition pathways are limited in scope and lack a strong theoretical foundation. This thesis addresses the lack of theoretical framework-based approaches by applying a sectoral analysis framework, identifying the main factors facilitating or hindering the sustainable energy transition in several countries, and the significant differences between them.The research focused on four countries; the Netherlands, Denmark, Germany and the United Kingdom and was limited to the residential sector of the built environment. It included the three dominant housing types: social rental; private rental; and homeownership. Data was clustered along the four dimensions of the sectoral analysis framework, identifying: (1) actors, interactions & networks; (2) the institutional or legal framework; (3) the technological framework; and (4) market demand. The same process was repeated for each of the countries, forming a detailed overview about their chosen energy transition pathways. A number of interviews were conducted to gain further insight into country-specific factors.With respect to actors, interactions and networks, this study has found that strong ties and cooperation between ministries and departments is an important factor facilitating policy success, with departmental fragmentation or competition posing a significant barrier. In terms of the institutional framework policy stability, clear targets and long-term policy framework are all factors for policy success. Conversely, frequent changes to existing policies, non-binding goals and the absence of a long-term framework are all seen as barriers for a sustainable energy transition. Looking at the technological regime, this study found countries with active support for renewable energy technologies have a higher share of renewable energy than countries where the choice of technologies is largely market-based. Past technological choices and existing energy-infrastructure were found to influence transition pathways and can be both a positive or negative factor. Lastly, with respect to market demand, the existence of a standardised housing stock was found to be a potentially significant factor for the upscaling of innovative initiatives. The existence of a large and fragmented (private) rental sector and high interest rates on financing products were found to be further barriers for the energy transition in the residential sector.This thesis has identified obstacles matching those in previous studies and introduced a number of factors facilitating policy success. It has made a first step in overcoming the lack in theoretical framework-based approaches in energy transition analysis future studies can build on.

This thesis describes how Green Infrastructure has been incorporated into the syllabi of vocational-professional courses within the planning occupation. Within this it examines the competing authorities that seek to determine how this is accomplished. what form this new knowledge takes and how it should be taught. Key drivers for change in syllabi are widely recognised: 'the market', universities as centres for innovation, professional associations as owners of a discrete body of knowledge, government as paymaster, and students as 'clients' or 'customers'. However, the relationship between these, as well as the relative power to determine authority, are undeveloped points within this understanding. Various methods were adopted, but a central part of the work is case studies on four universities teaching planning courses. These are identified as Quality University. Balance University, Process University and Industry University. Despite each having a different philosophy of approach towards the nature and provision of higher education, each is found to provide teaching forms within the same paradigm. However, students within each university interpret their learning needs separately. and there is a fissure in the understanding of teaching and learning between student and university. The research suggests that individuals are key drivers for change to syllabi. and proposes a number of ideal types: the Green Champion, the Green Infrastructure Champion, the Green Maverick, the Green Infrastructure Maverick. the Green Technocrat, the Green Antagonist. and the Green Ignorant. Champions are found to be a key driver in establishing new forms of knowledge and incorporating these into syllabi. Intellectual deviancy by individuals, identified as Mavericks, also introduces new forms of knowledge generally and Green Infrastructure specifically. However. quite where Green Infrastructure originates from is less clear. Professions also have a key role, despite their claims to be removed from the process of creating courses, but there is far less evidence on corporate university structures or the government generating change. One useful social theory to contextualise these ideas is Anthony Giddens' view of High Modernity, in which all knowledge is contingent and there is no determinant authority; rather, competing and transient authorities vie for control.

In the U.S., youth experience health problems due to inadequate eating behaviors. In terms of physical environmental factors and social environmental factors, youth encounter problems with accessing good foods, as do other age groups. The purpose of this study is to find the relationship between youths’ eating behavior, especially patterns of visiting food resources, and the availability of food resources by food type and socioeconomic background in Providence, Rhode Island. In order to test the relationship between the availability of food resources and socioeconomic situation and children’s eating behaviors, several statistical models are developed. The models are based on the multinomial logistic regression model. Students’ activity data were obtained from a survey in Teen Activity and Transportation Enterprise Project (TATE) under direction of Dr. Talia McCray from September 2006 to May 2007. The food resources location data are collected from the Providence Plan and the Yellow Pages in Rhode Island. The multinomial logistic model shows that the availability of healthy food resources within walking distance from home, frequency to visit food resources, gender, employment status, and race significantly affect access to unhealthy food resources (p < 0.05). The availability of unhealthy foods within walking distance, the number of members living in the household, the number of cars in household, students born in the U.S.A, and the father born in the U.S.A, are not significant. In terms of availability of healthy foods around the home location, number of healthy food resources matter. / text