Brazil\'s discoveries of large gas reservoirs in the offshore ultra-deep waters of the presalt fields show a promising scenario, along with strategic investment and adequate policy, for the development of natural gas infrastructure and a sustainable transition in the Brazilian electricity mix. Such transition should occur through the use of transnational natural gas pipelines connected to large industrial facilities and power stations, as part of strategic planning to expand industrial usage, and avoid the shortage of electricity supply, with economic and environmental advantages. Since the most important debates of the new millennium are focused on globalization and sustainable development for nations, transnational energy integration in Latin America has been receiving increasingly attention from researchers and policy makers. In this overall context, the purpose of the present research was to develop a model to study, in a comparative manner, the thermoelectric generation, as well as to analyze the effect of legal frameworks and governmental policies on the development of infrastructure and natural gas market in Brazil, with a detailed study of the most relevant market and regulatory mechanisms. A comparison was performed in terms of the most relevant regulatory legislation in Brazil and other relevant Member States of the South American economic block. The study also evaluates the sanctions imposed by ANEEL Resolution n. 583 of 2013 on suppliers, due to the lack of NG supply for thermoelectric utilities, proposing an alternative formula, thought to mitigate the influence of averages and other electricity market parameters, therefore decreasing the sanction value for the NG supplier, without compromising the contract neutrality. Different factors were analyzed in order to determine which technology would be the most efficient in terms of levelized costs. Results indicated that natural gas-fired generators are very competitive and efficient, when compared to other thermoelectric sources in both economic and environmental aspects, even when externalities were included. Also, that further strategic investment and adequate regulatory policy changes are required from the market agents, in order to foster the development of pipeline infrastructure and the expansion of natural gas use in Brazil. The study also demonstrates that the environmental impact of the CH4 leakage equals that of CO2 release from combustion at about 4.2% leakage on a mass basis, when methane leakage rises to a level in which natural gas becomes as greenhouse gas intensive as biomass. / As descobertas de substanciais reservatórios de gás natural no Brasil, localizados em águas ultra profundas após a camada Pré-Sal, demonstram um cenário promissor, aliado a investimentos estratégicos e a políticas públicas adequadas, para o desenvolvimento da infraestrutura de gás natural e uma transição sustentável na matriz elétrica brasileira. Tal transição deveria ocorrer por intermédio do uso de tubulação transnacional de gás natural, conectada a grandes instalações industriais e a usinas termelétricas, como parte de um planejamento estratégico voltado à expansão do uso de gás natural na indústria e a evitar a escassez no suprimento de energia elétrica, com vantagens econômicas e ambientais. Considerando que os debates mais relevantes do novo milênio estão focados na globalização e no desenvolvimento sustentável das nações, a integração transnacional na América Latina tem recebido crescente atenção por parte de pesquisadores e de elaboradores das políticas públicas. Nesse contexto geral, a proposta da presente pesquisa foi a de desenvolver um modelo para estudar, de uma forma comparativa, a geração termelétrica, bem como analisar o impacto do arcabouço jurídico-regulatório e das políticas governamentais no desenvolvimento da infraestrutura e do mercado do gás natural no Brasil, com um estudo detalhado dos mais relevantes mecanismos regulatórios e de mercado. Foi realizado, ainda, um comparativo da legislação regulatória do gás natural no Brasil com outros Estados-Membros relevantes do Mercosul. O estudo também avalia as sanções impostas pela Resolução ANEEL n. 583 de 2013 nos fornecedores, devido a corte no suprimento de gás natural para empreendimentos de geração termelétrica, propondo um cálculo alternativo visando a mitigar a influência das médias e outros parâmetros intrínsecos ao mercado de energia, dessa maneira reduzindo as sanções contratuais para o fornecedor de gás natural, sem prejudicar a neutralidade contratual. Diferentes fatores foram analisados de forma a determinar qual tecnologia seria a mais eficiente em termos de custos nivelados de eletricidade. Os resultados indicaram que as termelétricas a gás natural são muito competitivas e eficientes, quando comparadas com outros tipos de combustível, tanto pelo aspecto ambiental quanto pelo econômico, mesmo quando externalidades são incluídas. Ainda, que são necessárias mudanças nas políticas regulatórias e no investimento estratégico por parte dos agentes do mercado, de forma a incentivar o desenvolvimento de infraestrutura e a expansão do uso do gás natural no Brasil. O estudo também evidencia que o impacto ambiental do vazamento de CH4 se iguala àquele do CO2 liberado pela combustão em cerca de 4.2% em base mássica, quando o vazamento de metano atinge um nível em que seu impacto como gás do efeito estufa fica equivalente à biomassa.

Os efeitos multidisciplinares presentes em projetos de engenharia, sobretudo naqueles de infra-estrutura, têm alargado as fronteiras de pesquisas para avaliá-los não só do ponto de vista convencional técnico econômico, mas também sob a ótica ambiental e social. Por outro lado, o investidor que tradicionalmente buscava oportunidades apenas considerando o desempenho econômico e financeiro, atualmente é levado a analisar os empreendimentos também no âmbito social e ambiental. Fundamentado em várias informações disponíveis em bases de dados constituídas por diversas instituições, o modelo desenvolvido nesta pesquisa é uma solução para avaliar o mérito de um empreendimento de geração distribuída de origem térmica, considerando os aspectos econômico, social e ambiental, por meio de indicadores que quantificam, objetivamente, aspectos econômicos como taxa de retorno de capital e margem liquida, bem como fatores sociais como o impacto na educação, na saúde, na renda e no emprego e ainda, verifica o atendimento das restrições ambientais. A solução apresentada, sem prejuízo da avaliação dos aspectos pragmáticos relativos à viabilidade econômica e respeito à regulamentação ambiental, traz uma forma simples e clara de atribuir um grau de mérito agregado às alternativas de implementação de geração distribuída, considerando a intensidade da responsabilidade social subjetiva do investidor. A análise de cenários e de sensibilidade diante da variação de parâmetros diversos que o modelo oferece, permite aferir o grau de robustez e de importância da precisão de variáveis específicas. Embora não esgote o tema, o modelo apresentado contribui para estimular diferentes formas de avaliar e priorizar multidisciplinarmente a implementação um empreendimento de geração distribuída, podendo inclusive, se prestar como indicador de financiamentos privilegiados ou outros incentivos do gênero. / The multidiscipline effects in engineering projects, mainly in those of infrastructure, have extended the borders of research to not only evaluate them of the conventional point of view, economic and technical, but also environmental and social. On the other hand, the investor who traditionally searched alternatives only considering the economic and financial performance currently is taken to analyze also the social and environmental aspects. Based on some information available in several institutions databases, the model developed in this research is a solution to evaluate the merit of an enterprise of distributed generation of thermal origin, considering the economic, social and environmental aspects, using merit indexes that quantify, directly, economic aspects as capital return tax and operating income eliminates, as well as social factors like the impact in the education, health, income and employment rates and still, it verifies the attendance of the environmental restrictions. The solution presented, without damage the evaluation of the pragmatic aspects related to economic viability and respect to the ambient regulation, brings a simple and clear form to attribute a merit degree of aggregate to the alternatives to embed distributed generation, considering the intensity of the subjective social responsibility of the investor. The analysis of sceneries and sensitivity ahead of the diverse parameter variation that the model offers, allows investigating the robustness degree and accuracy importance of specific variable. Although it does not deplete the subject, the presented model is an important contribution to stimulate a form to evaluate and to prioritize the multidiscipline implementation to a distributed generation enterprise, also being able, to be used as financial index or other incentives of the sort.

Este estudo procura abordar os interesses da Petrobras S.A. nos seus investimentos em geração termelétrica com gás natural. Para tanto, analisa, primeiro, as características da matriz energética brasileira e a possibilidade de inserção do gás natural nessa matriz, confrontando-se com as restrições existentes ao suprimento deste energético, bem como dos meios para a superação destas restrições. Após esboçar a crise que se configurou no setor elétrico brasileiro nas décadas de 80 e 90, passa a tratar das medidas governamentais e privadas para a superação desta crise, buscando incentivar acréscimos rápidos na capacidade de geração. Em seguida, detém-se na caracterização dos contratos de project finance, suas características e sua aplicação no Brasil. Por fim, considera os objetivos da Petrobras S.A. na sua decisão de investir em geração termelétrica, via contratos project finance, para, então, avaliar em que medida estes objetivos foram alcançados. / This study is intended to analyze the interests of PETROBRAS S.A. concerning its investments in thermoelectric generation powered by natural gas. In order to achieve that aim, initially the characteristics of the Brazilian energetic matrix and the possibility of insertion of natural gas in such matrix are analyzed considering the current restrictions to the supply of that fuel and the means for overcoming those restrictions. After an outline of the crisis that developed in the Brazilian electrical sector during the eighties and nineties, this study starts to deal with the governmental and private measures aiming the recovery from that crisis, trying to encourage quick additions to the capacity of generation. Next it draws attention to the making of project finance contracts, to their characteristics and to their use in Brazil. Finally, it considers the objectives of PETROBRAS S.A. concerning that company´s decision to invest in thermoelectric generation via project finance contracts for, then, evaluate to which measure those objectives have been fulfilled.

The continuing requirement for computational processing power, multi-functional devices and component miniaturization have emphasised the need for thermal management systems able to maintain the temperature at safe operating condition. The thermal management industry is constantly seeking for new cutting edge, efficient, cost effective heat transfer enhancement technologies. The aim of this study is to utilize the electron beam treatment for the improvement of the heat transfer area in liquid cooled plates and experimentally evaluate the performance. Considering the complexity of the technology, this thesis focuses on the design and production of electron beam enhanced test samples, construction of the test facility, testing procedure and evaluation of thermal and hydraulic characteristics. In particular, the current research presented in this thesis contains a number of challenging and cutting edge technological developments that include: (1) an overview of the semiconductor industry, cooling requirements, the market of thermal management systems, (2) an integral literature review of pin-fin enhancement technology, (3) design and fabrication of the electron beam enhanced test samples, (4) upgrade and construction of the experimental test rig and the development of the test procedure, (5) reduction of the experimental data and analysis to evaluate thermal and hydraulic performance. The experimental results show that the capability of the electron beam treatment to improve the thermal efficiency of current untreated liquid cooled plates is approximately three times. The highest heat transfer rate was observed for the sample S3; this is attributed to the irregularities of the enhanced structure, which improves the heat transfer area, mixing, and disturbs the thermal and velocity boundary layers. Enhancement of heat transfer for all three samples was characterised by an increase of pressure drop. The electron beam enhancement technique is a rapid process with zero material waste and cost effective. It allows thermal management systems to be produced smaller and faster, reduce material usage, without compromising safety, labour cost or the environment.

Les phénomènes thermoélectriques sont un moyen de convertir directement l’énergie thermique en énergie électrique ; ils sont à ce titre au cœur de nombreuses recherches dans le domaine de l’énergétique. Au-delà de l’optimisation des matériaux constituants les générateurs thermoélectriques, il est également nécessaire de mener une réflexion sur la manière dont ces générateurs sont utilisés. La contribution des contacts thermiques entre le générateur et les réservoirs thermiques est un facteur qui va modifier les conditions de fonctionnement optimales du générateur. En utilisant la notion de courant thermique convectif, développée par Thomson il y a plus de 150 ans, nous généralisons les expressions classiques du fonctionnement à puissance maximum pour le générateur pour ce cas de figure. Nous constatons toutefois que ces conditions se réduisent à une adaptation d’impédance, à la fois thermique et électrique Outre son intérêt pratique, le générateur thermoélectrique est également un système modèle de choix pour étudier la théorie du transport couplé et des phénomènes irréversibles. En utilisant la description donnée par Ioffe de ce système, nous montrons que l’efficacité à maximum de puissance, un coefficient de performance au cœur de la thermodynamique à temps fini, s’exprime comme une fonction relativement simple des paramètres du système. La nouveauté de ce travail repose sur une prise en compte appropriée des dissipations internes associées au processus de conversion d’énergie. Les résultats sont généralisés enfin aux cas d’autres machines thermiques telle que la roue à rochet de Feynman. / Thermoelectric phenomena are a way to directly convert thermal energy into electrical energy; they thus are at the heart of several researches in the field of energy conversion. The optimization of the thermoelectric generators includes materials improvement but a reflection on their working conditions is also mandatory. The contribution of the thermal contacts between the generator and the heat reservoirs is a factor that will change the optimum operating conditions of the generator. Using the concept of convective heat flow, developed by Thomson more than 150 years ago, we generalize the classical expression of maximum power conditions. Moreover, we note that these conditions may be reduced to impedance matching conditions, both thermal and electrical. In addition to its practical interest, the thermoelectric generator is also an ideal model system to study the theory of coupled transport and of irreversible phenomena. Using the description of this system given by Ioffe, we show that the maximum power efficiency, a coefficient of performance at the heart of finite time thermodynamics, expressed as a simple function of the system parameters. The novelty of this work is based on a proper consideration of internal dissipation associated with the energy conversion process. The results are then generalized to other thermal engines such as the Feynman ratchet.

The thermoelectric properties and microstructure of two families of misfit type layered structure cobaltites were investigated for thermoelectric applications. Firstly, Bismuth strontium cobaltite ceramics with the formulations Bi2+xSr2Co2Oy (x=0, 0.1 and 0.2), Bi1.74Sr2Co1.8Oy and Bi2Sr2Co1.8Oy were produced using solid-state reaction (MO) method. The same powders were also used to produce ceramics by Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS) fabrication technique. SEM, high resolution XRD and HRTEM techniques has been employed to characterise the microstructure and crystal structures of the ceramics. Figure of merit (ZT) was also determined from measurement of electrical resistivity, Seebeck coefficient and thermal conductivity. Together with the above, calcium cobaltite of formulation Ca3-xBixCo3O9 (x=0 and 0.3) was also produced via MO and SPS routes. The same characterisation techniques were used for characterisation of calcium cobaltite. For Bi2+xSr2Co2Oy ceramics, it was found that SPS fabrication is essential to obtain high density samples. Excess bismuth has a major role in the adjustment of the microstructure and thermoelectric properties. The room temperature microstructure contains two minor phases with compositions of CoO and Bi0.75Sr0.25O1.26. The crystal structure of the main phase was successfully indexed and refined as misfit type structure having monoclinic symmetry with I2/a space group. A high ZT of 0.12 was achieved in both x=0.1 and 0.2 MO samples. For Bi2Sr2Co1.8Oy ceramics, the microstructure contains only one minor phase, Bi0.75Sr0.25O1.26. A high ZT of 0.16 was obtained at 900 K for this composition. For Bi1.74Sr2Co1.8Oy, it was not possible to obtain high density ceramics by MO route and SPS fabrication was necessary. However, SPS sample showed a low ZT of 0.04 at 900 K.For ceramics of formulation Ca3-xBixCo3O9 (x=0 and 0.3), it was difficult to obtain high density calcium cobaltite ceramics by MO route and SPS fabrication was found to be essential. In addition to improved density, SPS produced textured microstructure. Similar to bismuth strontium cobaltite, excess bismuth played a major role in microstructure development and thermoelectric properties. Single phase and high density Ca3Co4O9 ceramics were obtained by SPS. A minor phase of Bi2Ca2Co2Oy was found in the microstructure of Ca3-xBixCo3O4 (x=0.3) samples. A high ZT of 0.25 was obtained for Ca3Co4O9 SPS samples at 900 K through improvement of power factor. In-situ synchrotron XRD in the temperature range of 300-1223 K was performed on both Bi2Sr2Co2Oy and Ca3Co4O9 to obtain their high temperature structural characteristics. The crystal structure of both compounds remains unchanged till 1223 K. For, Bi2Sr2Co2Oy the CoO and Bi0.75Sr0.25O1.26 minor phases disappear above 1073 K and a new minor phase containing (Bi-Sr-O) or (Bi-Co-O) starts forming. On heating, the lattice volume and coefficient of thermal expansion change linearly for both compounds. Thermal expansion coefficient was found to be 0.0000353-0.0000343 and 0.0000296-0.0000288 K-1 over the temperature range of 300-1223 K for Bi2Sr2Co2Oy and Ca3Co4O9 respectively.

L’amélioration de la figure de mérite ZT des matériaux thermoélectriques (TE) est actuellement entreprise via des procédés de métallurgie, tels que la nanostructuration et l’introduction contrôlée de dislocations. De tels niveaux de complexité de microstructure soulèvent la problématique du comportement mécanique associé. En effet, malgré les valeurs de dureté et module d’élasticité connues pour la plupart des matériaux TE, rares sont les données sur les mécanismes de déformation. Portant sur le Half-Heusler Hf0.44Zr0.44Ti0.12CoSb0.8Sn0.2 de type p, notre étude multi-échelle propose de caractériser les mécanismes de déformation de cet alliage. Les expérimentations menées aux échelles macroscopique, mésoscopique, et microscopique sont pensées pour déclencher puis examiner les mécanismes de plasticité. Les tests en compression sur échantillons massifs dans un environnement de pression de confinement et température ont aboutis à une rupture exclusivement fragile. Les mécanismes de rupture sont identifiés comme associés une propagation de fissure intra- et inter granulaire, dépendant de la taille de grain rencontrée par le front de fissure. La méthode « indentation toughness » à l’échelle mésoscopique permet l’insertion de fissures, où les analyses MET en front de fissure confirment une abscence d’activité de dislocations, également confirmé par 3D-EBSD. À l’échelle microscopique, les données de compression de micro-pilliers ainsi que les observations de faciès de fracture sont comparable avec les échantillons massifs. Ces résultats peuvent être utilisés comme guide pour produire des matériaux TE plus résistants à la fissuration. / Increasing the figure of merit ZT of thermoelectric (TE) alloys is a challenge that is currently attempted through various metallurgy methods, including nanostructuring and dislocation engineering. Microstructures with such level of complexity raises questions about the mechanical reliability of these new materials. Indeed, despite the values of hardness and elastic modulus known for the clear majority of TE materials, the data on deformation mechanisms are still rare. Focusing on the nanostructured p-type half-Heusler Hf0.44Zr0.44Ti0.12CoSb0.8Sn0.2, our multi-scale study aims to analyze the deformation mechanisms. Experiments conducted at macro-, meso- and micro-scale are designed to trigger and assess plasticity mechanisms. Compression testing on bulk samples subject to a confining pressure environment and temperature leads to an exclusive brittle failure. The mixed-mode failure mechanisms involve switching between intra- and inter-granular crack propagation, depending on the grain size met by the crack tip. Indentation toughness at meso-scale generates cracks, while TEM analysis of the crack tip area confirms no dislocation activity and 3D-EBSD technique confirms the mixed crack propagation behavior. At micro-scale, micro-pillar compression stress-strain curves and failure mechanisms are comparable with bulk samples testing analysis. These results can be used to provide design guidelines for more crack-resistant TE alloys.

Um condicionador de ar para biotérios foi montado com módulos termoelétricos de efeito Peltier. Para troca térmica, foram testados: 1. dissipação externa a ar, com &delta;t de 14°C, rendimento de 16,46%, consumo de 1212 W/h e, 2. dissipação externa água, com &delta;t de 21°C, rendimento de 46,02%, consumo de 524 W/h. A simulação matemática de operação, com mistura de ar não condicionado, mostrou que o sistema pode servir, na dissipação a ar, a aproximadamente 91 microisoladores padrão rato e a aproximadamente 137, na dissipação a água. Quando comparado com um sistema de compressão de freon, o termoelétrico mostrou economia de 26% na implantação e 38% no consumo elétrico por BTU gerado. O sistema termoelétrico mostrou ainda, precisão de &plusmn; 0,1°C, nas temperaturas experimentais, o que é impossível num sistema de freon. Para os testes em animais foram empregados Ratos wistar, mantidos individualmente, em gaiolas metabólicas de arame, sem abrigo, em sistema microambiental, sob fluxo direto de ar a 0,6 m/s, nas temperaturas de 22°, 24°, 26°, 28° e 30°C (E I, E II, E III, E IV e E V). A ingestão de ração e o ganho de peso foram comparados ao final de 5 dias (ANOVA; Tukey-Kramer). No total, 7 grupos de 15 animais cada foram comparados. Para a faixa de 22°C foram utilizados 3 grupos, sendo um grupo experimental e dois grupos controle (CI e C II). Um deles foi mantido em condições ambientais semelhantes a biotérios convencionais sob ventilação geral diluidora (VGD) - C I. O outro grupo controle (C II) foi mantido no interior do equipamento de ventilação microambiental, porém, sem o direcionamento de ar, simulando a VGD. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram claramente que animais mantidos sob ventilação microambiental direta a 26°, 28° e 30° (E III, E IV e E V) apresentaram o mesmo ganho de massa corpórea que animais do grupo C I (22 &plusmn; 2°C). Os grupos E I e E II apresentaram menor ganho de massa corpórea quando comparados a C I (p<0,001 em ambas comparações). O ganho de peso de todos os grupos experimentais apresentou diferença estatística, quando comparado ao C II, exceto o grupo E V que obteve índice de ganho de peso equivalente a C II. A ingestão de ração de todos os grupos se manteve praticamente constante. O grupo E V apresentou uma redução na ingestão de ração quando comparado aos grupos C I, E I e E II (p<0,01; p<0,01; p<0,001 respectivamente). O grupo E III ingeriu menos ração que os grupos C I (p<0,05) e E II (p<0,05). / An air-conditioner for animal facility was assembled with Peltier effect thermoelectric modules. For external exchanger, had been tested: 1. external air dissipation: &delta;t = 14°C; 16,46% of efficiency; 1212 W/h of power consumption and, 2. external water dissipation: &delta;t = 21°C; 46,02% of efficiency; 524 W/h of power consumption. A mathematical simulation of operation, with not conditional air mixture, showed that the system can supply, with air dissipation, to &asymp; 91 microisolator rat cages and to &asymp; 137, with water dissipation. When compared with a freon system, the thermoelectric system shows economy of 26% in implantation and 38% in the electric consumption by generated BTU. The thermoelectric system showed too, a precision of ± 0,1°C, at experimental temperatures, what is impossible in a freon system. For animal tests, Wistar rats had been kept individually, in metabolic wire cages, without shelter, in microenvironmental system, under direct air flow at 0,6 m/s, under temperatures of 22°, 24°, 26°, 28° and 30° C (E I, E II, E III, E IV and E V). The food ingestion and the weight gain had been compared in the end of 5 days (ANOVA; Tukey-Kramer). In the total, 7 groups, 15 animals each, had been compared. For the 22°C temperature, had been used 3 groups, one experimental and two controls (C I e C II). One of them was kept in similar ambient of conventional laboratory animal rooms conditions (general diluitory ventilation, GDV) - C I. The other control group (C II) was kept in the interior of the equipment of microenvironmental ventilation, however, without the direct air flow, simulating the GDV. The gotten results demonstrate clearly that animal kept under direct microenvironmental ventilation at 26°, 28° and 30°C (E III, E IV and E V) have the same gain of corporal mass that C I group (22 &plusmn; 2°C). The E I and E II had less corporal mass gain when compared to C I (p<0,001 for the two comparisons). The weight gain for all the experimental groups, when compared to C II, presents statistical differences, except E V group, that was equal to C II. The food ingestion of all the groups was constant. The E V group presented a reduction in the food ingestion when compared with the groups C I , E I and E II (p<0,01; p<0,01; p<0,001 respectively). The E III group ingested less ration than C I (p<0,05) and E II (p<0,05) groups.

Brazil\'s discoveries of large gas reservoirs in the offshore ultra-deep waters of the presalt fields show a promising scenario, along with strategic investment and adequate policy, for the development of natural gas infrastructure and a sustainable transition in the Brazilian electricity mix. Such transition should occur through the use of transnational natural gas pipelines connected to large industrial facilities and power stations, as part of strategic planning to expand industrial usage, and avoid the shortage of electricity supply, with economic and environmental advantages. Since the most important debates of the new millennium are focused on globalization and sustainable development for nations, transnational energy integration in Latin America has been receiving increasingly attention from researchers and policy makers. In this overall context, the purpose of the present research was to develop a model to study, in a comparative manner, the thermoelectric generation, as well as to analyze the effect of legal frameworks and governmental policies on the development of infrastructure and natural gas market in Brazil, with a detailed study of the most relevant market and regulatory mechanisms. A comparison was performed in terms of the most relevant regulatory legislation in Brazil and other relevant Member States of the South American economic block. The study also evaluates the sanctions imposed by ANEEL Resolution n. 583 of 2013 on suppliers, due to the lack of NG supply for thermoelectric utilities, proposing an alternative formula, thought to mitigate the influence of averages and other electricity market parameters, therefore decreasing the sanction value for the NG supplier, without compromising the contract neutrality. Different factors were analyzed in order to determine which technology would be the most efficient in terms of levelized costs. Results indicated that natural gas-fired generators are very competitive and efficient, when compared to other thermoelectric sources in both economic and environmental aspects, even when externalities were included. Also, that further strategic investment and adequate regulatory policy changes are required from the market agents, in order to foster the development of pipeline infrastructure and the expansion of natural gas use in Brazil. The study also demonstrates that the environmental impact of the CH4 leakage equals that of CO2 release from combustion at about 4.2% leakage on a mass basis, when methane leakage rises to a level in which natural gas becomes as greenhouse gas intensive as biomass. / As descobertas de substanciais reservatórios de gás natural no Brasil, localizados em águas ultra profundas após a camada Pré-Sal, demonstram um cenário promissor, aliado a investimentos estratégicos e a políticas públicas adequadas, para o desenvolvimento da infraestrutura de gás natural e uma transição sustentável na matriz elétrica brasileira. Tal transição deveria ocorrer por intermédio do uso de tubulação transnacional de gás natural, conectada a grandes instalações industriais e a usinas termelétricas, como parte de um planejamento estratégico voltado à expansão do uso de gás natural na indústria e a evitar a escassez no suprimento de energia elétrica, com vantagens econômicas e ambientais. Considerando que os debates mais relevantes do novo milênio estão focados na globalização e no desenvolvimento sustentável das nações, a integração transnacional na América Latina tem recebido crescente atenção por parte de pesquisadores e de elaboradores das políticas públicas. Nesse contexto geral, a proposta da presente pesquisa foi a de desenvolver um modelo para estudar, de uma forma comparativa, a geração termelétrica, bem como analisar o impacto do arcabouço jurídico-regulatório e das políticas governamentais no desenvolvimento da infraestrutura e do mercado do gás natural no Brasil, com um estudo detalhado dos mais relevantes mecanismos regulatórios e de mercado. Foi realizado, ainda, um comparativo da legislação regulatória do gás natural no Brasil com outros Estados-Membros relevantes do Mercosul. O estudo também avalia as sanções impostas pela Resolução ANEEL n. 583 de 2013 nos fornecedores, devido a corte no suprimento de gás natural para empreendimentos de geração termelétrica, propondo um cálculo alternativo visando a mitigar a influência das médias e outros parâmetros intrínsecos ao mercado de energia, dessa maneira reduzindo as sanções contratuais para o fornecedor de gás natural, sem prejudicar a neutralidade contratual. Diferentes fatores foram analisados de forma a determinar qual tecnologia seria a mais eficiente em termos de custos nivelados de eletricidade. Os resultados indicaram que as termelétricas a gás natural são muito competitivas e eficientes, quando comparadas com outros tipos de combustível, tanto pelo aspecto ambiental quanto pelo econômico, mesmo quando externalidades são incluídas. Ainda, que são necessárias mudanças nas políticas regulatórias e no investimento estratégico por parte dos agentes do mercado, de forma a incentivar o desenvolvimento de infraestrutura e a expansão do uso do gás natural no Brasil. O estudo também evidencia que o impacto ambiental do vazamento de CH4 se iguala àquele do CO2 liberado pela combustão em cerca de 4.2% em base mássica, quando o vazamento de metano atinge um nível em que seu impacto como gás do efeito estufa fica equivalente à biomassa.

In the face of the internationally tightened requirements and regulations for CO2 emissions from the transportation sector, waste heat recovery using a thermoelectric generator (TEG) has become the most significant research interest. A vehicular TEG, converting otherwise wasted thermal energy from engines to electricity directly for use in the vehicle systems, is a promising approach for vehicle original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) to reduce fuel consumption and lower CO2 emissions. This thesis aims to explore the main challenges to be faced in the commercialization of TEGs. Based on a review of the literature, four research gaps have been identified, which are respectively: * Translating the material improvements into TEG Performance, * Transient behaviors of vehicular TEGs under driving cycles, * Fuel saving percentage and cost-benefit estimation of TEG, * Bidirectional characteristic of TEM and bifunctional vehicular TEG. To directly address these research gaps, a quasi-static TEM model, a dynamic TEG model, a semi-empirical vehicular TEG model, and a dual-model TEM model have been respectively developed and validated through experiments on both TEM test rigs and TEG engine test benches. These developed models are used as tools to investigate the performance of TEG, parameters sensitivity, and integration effects. Model-based TEG control, TEG cost benefit ratio and feasibility of a bifunctional TEG are also explored based on the developed models. The simulation results show that TEG power generation is highly sensitive to the heat transfer coefficient of hot side heat exchanger and thermal contact resistance. The TEG installation position is identified as the most important integration effect. It has been found by the simulation result that the fuel saving with TEG installed upstream of the three-way catalyst (TWC) is 50% higher than the fuel saving with TEG installed downstream of the TWC. The fuel saving percentage for a skutterudite vehicular TEG, which can generate around 400-600W in constant speed 120km/h, is 0.5-3.6% depending on the integration position in the exhaust line. A 3-minute faster warm-up effect of engine oil can be obtained when the bifunctional TEG works in engine warm-up mode with electrical current applied.