Many countries in Latin America, for cultural, religious and regulatory reasons, have struggled and failed to appear as competent players in the global bio-economy of emerging technologies in the biosciences field. This investigation takes Mexico as a country case study to map out the factors hampering the development of the governance of emergent biomedical biotechnologies in this context, particularly that applied to stem cell science. This research aims to contextualise and portray prevailing ethical, legal, political and religious concerns regarding stem cell research in this context. Exploring the debates in these arenas, it seeks to elucidate the perceptions of key stakeholders and to appraise critically the divergences and convergences among the actors who currently shape the debate and who may have significant influence on the creation of any legislative framework in the area. It explores whether it is feasible to draw on the approach taken to stem cell science and tissue regulation in the United Kingdom, in order to illuminate the way forward for governing stem cell research and its clinical applications in Mexico. It also aims to evaluate the risks posed by the persistent lack of regulation in this scientific field, since Mexico appears to be an ideal destination for stem cell tourism among Latin American countries. Drawing on empirical data gathered from prominent Mexican stakeholders in the stem cell issue, this research elucidates the key themes influencing the debate which need to be addressed in detail in order to prepare the ground for the effective governance of stem cell science and its clinical applications. By detailing the emergent themes and providing reflexive explanations of the elements influencing the views of all the actors in this arena, this thesis aims to provide ethical, empirical and normative proposals to be translated by policymakers into purposive regulation of biomedical innovations. Thus, it delineates two main features of the debate over stem cell science regulation in Mexico and shows the urgent need to create a legal framework to deal with problematic situations provoked by the legal vacuum in this area: a) the legal inertia preponderant in the Federal Congress, which is mainly caused by the constant lobbying of politicians by the Roman Catholic hierarchy to endorse prohibitive policies in sensitive areas, such as sexual matters, reproduction and stem cell science; b) the increasing phenomenon of stem cell tourism in the country, requiring the adoption of ethical and legal measures to avoid potential physical and financial harm to desperate patients who seek stem cell treatments.In conclusion, I argue that it is plausible to advance a permissive model of governance for the area of stem cell science. This thesis is supported by the evidence gathered from stakeholders’ opinions, added to the data emanating from the analysis of the country case study. As a result, it is possible to propose as an initial strategy the adoption of significant regulatory features of the paradigmatic system of governance which applies in the United Kingdom. The law is up to date as of 19 June 2012.

This thesis examines the effectiveness of tourism as an agent of rural development, focusing on culture and nature-based destinations in the 'developing world'. The village of Desa Senaru at Gunung Rinjani National Park in Lombok Island, Indonesia, served as a case study. Conservation agencies frequently support tourism development as a sustainable alternative to more extractive resource uses. Integrated conservation models, in particular, present 'eco'tourism as an effective instrument to enhance rural livelihoods while protecting the environment. Alongside international aid agencies, the World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) also promotes the sector for its poverty reduction potential in 'third world' countries. Rural communities hold concomitant expectations of tourism's socio-cultural development potential. Furthermore, 'eco'tourism functions as a growing niche market for the globally expanding tourism industry and local entrepreneurs. As such it fits well into the economic rationale that underpins neo-liberal market strategies. With such a diversity of interests at stake, the question "What kind of business is tourism?" has become more complex, critical and pertinent than ever before. Informed by development theories and the sociology of tourism, this analysis focuses on the multiple dichotomies that characterise 'third world' tourism. In the case of tourism development in Desa Senaru, several paradoxical outcomes have been identified. The most profound of these is the 'social justice paradox' that describes the way tourism costs and benefits are distributed within a heterogeneous community of native residents and migrant settlers. While most of the case study's tourism attractions are part of the cultural heritage of the wetu telu Sasak hamlets, these derive few economic benefits and struggle to access the new development opportunities 'eco'tourism offers. Filtered and directed by historical political relations, several key barriers to a meaningful participation of these native people in the 'business of tourism' have been identified. These include the prevailing conditions of education, culture, ethnicity, socio-economy, location, mobility, skills and knowledge. Expectations of 'eco'tourism as a 'soft' industry analysed vis-à-vis the global biosphere effects of air transport highlight the 'eco-paradox' of international tourism. The cleavage between the poverty-focused aid policies of the New Zealand Government and an integrated conservation project, whose benefits local elites have largely captured, illustrates the 'project paradox' of rural tourism development programmes. In the 'development paradox' of cultural tourism, symbolic constructs of 'otherness' (such as 'aesthetic poverty') contrast with various development agendas; in their search for the 'real' traditional village, for example, the tourists reject all signifiers of material progress and modernity. Their curious gaze at the spiritual practices and everyday life world of the wetu telu villagers manifests opposite a recent history of state-sanctioned religious discrimination. Taken together, these paradoxical local outcomes emphasize the significance of power relations and political dimensions within the globally expanding 'business of tourism'. Ethical considerations are an important aspect of this study as they contribute towards an 'ethic of development' that, so far, has found little theoretical resonance amongst scholars of tourism studies. To operationalise the ethical concerns raised, the thesis posits a model of a holistic approach to development. This recognises tourism as a complex open system.

Biodiversity loss is one of the major environmental threats facing the planet. Incentive-based conservation is one means to reduce human pressure on wildlife by providing economic incentives for resource-dependent people to protect the environment. Marine wildlife tourism is one of the fastest growing tourism sectors globally and is viewed as an important incentive-based approach for achieving marine conservation goals. However, few studies have linked participation in the provisioning of marine wildlife tourism activities with positive social and ecological conservation outcomes. The goal of this dissertation is to provide greater understanding of the conservation value of marine wildlife tourism using whale shark tourism as a case study with a main focus on social conservation outcomes amongst tourism providers. Positive changes in perceptions, attitudes and values towards target species and their environments can be an important element of incentive-based conservation. The study has the following objectives: (1) to assess the status of the global whale shark tourism industry, including types (e.g., captive, non-captive), real and potential impacts, conservation value and management challenges and best practices; (2) to examine the ethics of provisioning whale sharks in Oslob, Philippines, the largest, non-captive viewing site in the world; (3) to determine if working in ecotourism changed the attitudes and behaviours of locals towards whale sharks and the ocean, and if tourism type affects those outcomes; (4) to assess the marine wildlife value orientations of locals working in whale shark tourism to achieve greater understanding of the factors influencing their conservation attitudes and behaviours; (5) to explore the potential long-term impacts of poorly conceived incentive-based conservation projects on social and ecological conservation outcomes; and (6) to re-examine and update the conceptual and theoretical background for wildlife tourism in light of the findings of this study. Methods include a comprehensive literature review, tourist surveys, social media content analysis, and interviews with locals working in whale shark tourism at four sites in the Philippines. Results suggest that marine wildlife tourism can play an important role in changing locals’ attitudes and behaviours towards the focal species and habitat; however, smaller-scale, more established sites had greater conservation value than the mass tourism or failed sites suggesting that small-scale, community-based ecotourism is the best approach to meeting conservation goals of marine wildlife tourism. Yet, few tourism sites meet these standards. Global standards are needed to ensure whale shark tourism activities meet desired conservation goals. Such standards should include management requirements (e.g., licensing, mandatory education program) and interaction guidelines (e.g. minimum viewing distances, limits on the number of swimmers/boats, etc.). The findings also emphasise that economics should not be the only or primary metric used to measure conservation success; rather, the focus should be on assessing a more comprehensive range of social and ecological conservation outcomes of these activities. / Graduate / 2020-04-16