Important issues for the local authorities are what to do with the sludge produced insewagetreatment plants. The tax for landfill leads to higher costs with 250 SEK/ton. On the 31December 2004 it will be forbidden to landfill sludge. In Sweden the yearly production of sludge is 240 000 tons, counted as DS. The phosphorouscontent is 3 % in sludge. The total yearly production of sludge gives 6000 tons of phosphorous. (Andersson et al, 1999). During the last years about one third of this phosphorous has been used as fertilisers at fields and one third as fertilisers on outer areas, the rest to landfill. Värmdö is producing 2700 tons sludge from sewage treatment plant countedas DS. (Lidbjörk, 1999). During the autumn in 1999 there has been a large number of alarming reports saying that the sludge in addition to heavy metals, toxic organic compounds, also contains brominatedcontaining flame retardants and dangerous infectious matter from hospital waste water. The alarming reports made the LRF in October 1999 to ban all spreading of sludge as fertilisers.Today it is not clear when and if this ban will be removed. In this Master of Science it is shown that landfilling of sludge leads to serious environmental effects, for example global warming, eutrofication and acidification. This indicates that landfill of sludge is not good in an environmental perspective. In this study in Värmdö sludge treatment has been studied with the simulation tool ORWARE(ORganic WAste REsearch). ORWARE is a system analysis model for waste planing with tools for lifecycle and substance flow analyses. The model is used for calculating emissionsand energy consumption for a waste system. It is thought as a tool for simulating different treatment methods for liquid and solid waste in a given area. The alternatives to landfill that have been studied in this thesis is incineration, composting with sewage treatment sludge and garbage from household in an reactor compost, as well as composting of sewage treatment sludge and biowaste in string compost. The study indicates that if it is possible to guarantee low concentrations of toxic substances in the sludge, the best alternative is to spread the sludge on fields. The uncertainty of the containing components in the sludge makes the incineration alternative a good alternative to guarantee destroy possible toxic components and bacteria that can exist in the sludge. The problem with incineration is that essential components like phosphor are destroyed and cannot be utilised. There are same methods today were you could utilise the phosphorous in incineration. These methods are very expensive and energy demanding and is therefore notused that much. With the discussion today about sustainable development incineration wherephosphorous is not utilised is only acceptable in the short term until the problems about the toxic components in the sludge have been solved. / www.ima.kth.se

Today more and more of our focus in Antarctica and the rest of the world are turning towards how we, theinhabitants, leave footprints on our planet. Scientists have found trace of humans all over the world evenin Antarctica’s fauna and flora. To be able to do research and understand our planet’s development andproblems, we must try to make as small impact on Antarctica as possible today and leave a pristinecontinent to the coming generations. One way to manage this is to not release untreated waste water. The aim of this thesis was to investigate different techniques for cleaning grey water for the SwedishAntarctic Summer Station Wasa. A survey on waste water treatment on almost all Antarctic researchstations has been carried out in order to find a suitable treatment method for the grey water released fromWasa. The survey showed that all twenty eight member states that operate research stations was includedand the survey covered 41 permanent stations, 26 summer stations and 4 field stations. The study showedthat 26 permanent stations and 8 summer stations had some kind of treatment for their waste water. Themost common treatment method at the permanent stations are biological treatment (8 stations) followed bysecondary treatment and maceration (4 stations per method). The results are based upon analyses from thesurvey answers and information from COMNAP’s homepage about members’ stations. One treatment system using chemical precipitate is currently under evaluation for Wasa. The system willbe tested in Sweden before the planned installation at Wasa during season 2006/2007. / <p>www.ima.kth.se</p>

Biobränsle är en förnyelsebar energikälla som har stor potential för enskilduppvärmning av villor. Men en stor del av de biobränslepannor, som används idag, är inte miljögodkända samt saknar ackumulatortank, vilket kan orsaka storautsläpp av hälsofarliga ämnen. Syftet med det här examensarbetet är att undersöka hur utsläppsnivåerna frånsmåskalig biobränsleanvändning skulle förändras, om man bytte ut dagens uppvärmningssystemmot bästa biobränsleteknik. Studien har utförts i villaområden i kommunerna Skellefteå, Lycksele ochStoruman. Utsläpp från dagens biobränsleanvändning har jämförts med hurutsläppen skulle se ut om alla hushåll bytte till bästa teknik. Med hjälp avinventering av bland annat energibehov och använd teknik, samt definiering avbästa teknik har beräkningar och datasimuleringar utförts. Simuleringarna hargjorts i spridningsprogrammet Airviro, där samkörning av klimat-, energianvändnings-och emissionsdata ger resultat i emissionshalter i luft. Jämförelsenbegränsas till tre olika föroreningsämnen: partiklar, bensen och NOx. Icke miljögodkänd förbränning av biobränslen ger stora utsläpp av partiklar ochbensen. Medan miljögodkända pannor håller en högre förbränningstemperaturvilket resulterar i större NOx-utsläpp. Vid konvertering till bästa teknik blev förändringen i mängden utsläpp per hus: • minskning av partikelutsläppen med 96 % • minskning av bensenutsläppen med 99 % • ökning av NOx-utsläppen med 24 % Resultaten visar på att byte till bästa teknik ger mycket stora förbättringar när detgäller utsläpp av partiklar och bensen. Trots ökningen av NOx-utsläppen germinskningen av många andra ämnen totalt sett övervägande positiva miljö- och hälsoeffekter. De miljökvalitetsnormer som gäller för årsmedelvärden kommer förmodligen inteatt överskridas i kommunerna. På grund av kyla och inversion kan lokalt högapartikelnivåer uppstå i perioder, vilket gör att de normer som finns fördygnsmedelvärden kan komma att överskridas. Det behövs incitament för snabbare konvertering till bästa biobränsleteknik.Ekonomiska bidrag och förbud mot installering av icke miljögodkända pannorkan vara steg mot minskade utsläppsnivåer. / Bio-fuel is a renewable energy source with significant benefits, when used in theheating of self-contained houses. Most of the bio-fuel boilers, used today, do notfulfil the environmental requirements neither are connected to accumulationtanks,and are therefore causing large amounts of health-impairing emissions. The object of this thesis is to investigate how the emission levels, caused by biofuel heated self-contained houses, would change if the current boilers would besubstituted with the best available solid bio-fuel boilers. This study focuses on urban areas in the communities Skellefteå, Lycksele andStoruman. The emissions, caused by the current use of bio-fuel, have beencompared to the emission that would have been the result if every self-containedhouse in the area converted to the best available bio-fuel technique. Usinginventories of energy needed and the used heating technique along with definingthe best available technique, calculations and computer simulations have beenmade. Computer simulations are created via the air dispersion program Airviro,where inputs such as climate, energy consumption and emission data are used tocalculate emission contents in air. The emission investigation is restricted to threepolluting substances, namely: particles, benzene and NOx. Boilers that do not conform the environmental requirements will produce largeamounts of particles and benzene while, in contrast, boilers who do satisfy theenvironmental requirements have higher combustion temperatures and willtherefore lead to an increased emission of NOx. When converting to the best available technique, the changes in amount ofemission per house results in the following: • Reduction of particle emissions by 96 % • Reduction of benzene emissions by 99 % • Increase of NOx emissions of 24 % Results show that changing to the best available technique will lead to asignificant reduction in particles and benzene emission. Thus, despite theincreased emission of NOx, the overall improvement in emission levels will leadto a predominantly positive effect on health and environmental aspects.In the communities studied, the annual emission levels do not exceed theenvironmental quality standards. Yet, due to cool temperatures and the inversionphenomena, particle levels may exceed the standard for 24-hour mean.Incentives are needed to speed up the adoption of best available solid bio-fueltechnique. Economical aid and restricting the installing of boilers, which do notconform to environmental requirements, may be a step in the right direction toachieve lowered emission levels. / www.ima.kth.se

Hammarby Sjöstad är en ny stadsdel i Stockholm. Vid planeringen av detta område sattes detupp ett speciellt miljöprogram. Generellt sett skulle allt göras dubbelt så bra som vid tidigarebyggda bostadsområden. För vatten och avlopp blev utsläppskraven så hårda att detnuvarande reningsverket i Henriksdal inte kunde uppfylla dessa mål. Därför byggdes det ettnytt reningsverk, Sjöstadsverket, där Stockholm Vatten kunde testa ny avanceradreningsteknik. I en av försökslinjerna utvärderas biologisk foforreduktion istället för kemisk fällning avfosfor. Fördelen med biologisk foforreduktion kontra kemisk fällning är att fosfat kanutvinnas ur fosforrika delströmmar i aktivslamprocessen eller ur rejektvattnet efterslamrötningen. Ett sätt att ta tillvara fosforn är att fälla ut den i form avmagnesiumammoniumfosfat, så kallad struvit. I avloppsvatten görs det genom att tillsättamagnesium och samtidigt höja pH. Struvit är ett salt som löser sig långsamt och fungerardärför bra som gödningsmedel för jordbruket. Syftet med detta examensarbete var att utforma och genomföra struvitfällningsförsök iförsökslinjen med biologisk fosforreduktion. Ett kontinuerligt satsvist fällningsstegkonstruerades och var i drift oavbrutet i en 27 dagars period. Anläggningens kapacitet att fällastruvit och därmed reducera fosfor utvärderades. Dessutom bestämdes fosfor- ochtungmetallhalterna i struvitfällningen och avslutningsvis genomfördes en enklare ekonomiskanalys. Resultaten visar att reduktionsgraden av fosfat ökar med magnesiumdoseringen,uppehållstiden samt groddningen i fällningstanken. Vid pH 9,1, en uppehållstid på 7 h och enMg/P-kvot på 2,5 var fosfatreduktionen 78 %, utan att utgående halter magnesium var förhöga. Höjdes pH till 9,5, uppehållstiden till 12 h och Mg/P-kvoten till 3 var fosfatreduktionen94 %, men då överdoserades magnesium. Exakta värden samt vilken av parametrarna som ärviktigast för en hög fosfatreduktion kan ej bestämmas utifrån dessa försök. 21 vikt-% av fällningen utgjordes av struvit, 13 vikt-% var ren fosfor och 28 vikt-% avfällningen kunde inte definieras med de analysmetoder som användes. Den definierade delenav fällningen innehöll förutom struvit även fukt, kristallvatten, organiskt material och övrigametaller. Den odefinierade delen bestod troligtvis av magnesiumfosfat och diverse karbonatochhydroxidföreningar. Halten tungmetaller i struvitfällningen var väldigt låg. Jämförs denmed rötat slam visar det sig att fällningen är betydligt mer koncentrerad, med avseende påfosfor, och med lägre tungmetallhalter än det rötade slammet. Kemikaliekostnaden för fullskaleförsöket blev 24 kr/m3 rejekt, vilket motsvarar 720 kr/kg P.Vid längre drift och större inköp av kemikalier kan kostnaderna fås ned till omkring 4,6 kr/m3rejekt, vilket motsvarar 160 kr/kg P. Om fällningen används i stor skala vid Henriksdalsreningsverk blir kemikaliekostnaden omkring 1 kr/m3 rejekt, eller 25 kr/kg P. Dessa kostnaderska jämföras med inköpspriset på fosfor som är cirka 10 kr/kg. / Hammarby Sjöstad is a new, fast growing city district in Stockholm. A special environmentalprogram was established during the development of the district. Everything was supposed tobe carried out at least twice as good as previous built city districts. The demands upon thewastewater industry became so though that the existing wastewater treatment plant inHenriksdal could not fulfil these claims. Therefore a new treatment plant, Sjöstadsverket, wasset up, where new advanced treatment technology could be tested. One of the technologies that are evaluated is enhanced biological phosphorous removal,EBPR, instead of chemical precipitation. The advantage with EBPR is that phosphate can beextracted from the activated sludge system in the EBPR, or from the return liquid from thesludge digestion process. A way to recover the phosphorus is to precipitate it in the form ofmagnesium ammonium phosphate, so called struvite. In wastewater that is carried out byadding magnesium and in the same time raise the pH. Struvite is a slow-release salt that iswell suited for use as a fertilizer in the agricultural industry. The purpose of this study was to precipitate struvite in the EBPR-process and design aprecipitation reactor that could operate in a continuous mode. A batch reactor was constructedand ran uninterrupted for a 27-day period. The reactor’s capacity to precipitate struvite andreduce phosphate was evaluated. The phosphorus- and metal proportions in the struviteprecipitate was also determined, and a small economical analyse was carried out. The results show that the reduction of phosphate increases with the addition of magnesium,higher retention time and increased seeding in the reactor. Exact values of these processparameters and which one that is most important for a high phosphate reduction could notbeen determined in these experiments. One fifth of the precipitate constitutes of struvite and one eight of phosphorous. A quarter ofthe precipitate could not been define with the methods used in this analyse. The rest of theknown precipitate constitutes of moist, crystal water, organic material and other metals. Theproportion of heavy metals in the precipitate was very low. If compared with decomposedsludge the result shows that the struvite precipitation was more concentrated, in regard tophosphorous, and had a lower proportion of heavy metals than the decomposed sludge. Thecost of chemicals in this study was very high but if larger volumes of chemicals are purchasedthe cost could easily be lowered. / www.ima.kth.se

Antifouling paint containing the biocide bisTributyltinoxide (TBTO) has been used since1960 to reduce the occurrence of fouling on hulls on boats/ships. January 1st, 2003 theantifouling paints containing TBTO were prohibited. This ban covered all use of paintcontaining the substance TBTO. The ban was introduced because of alarming observationssuch as development of imposex in aquatic non-target organisms. Imposex is the impositionof male sexual characteristics on mainly female marine snails and occurs due to exposure toTributyltin (TBT). Reproductive failure could be a consequence. After restrictions of TBTO,the substance has become less common in the environment. Despite this, the United NationsSpecialized Agency is worried. The substance still exists in the environment and will affectthe ambient nature. Above all, there is TBT in sediment and in water which may have aneffect on organisms living in water. As a consequence of this, TBT will also be transferred toboth biota and food. TBT has been observed in fish as well as in shellfish. The substance isbioaccumulating, which means that the substance will concentrate in lipofilic tissue. TBT willfor example be stored in the liver. In consideration of this, organisms living in the water areable to transport the substance further on, in the food chain. Bearing this in mind, the humanbeing at the top of the food chain is not without danger. According to the literature, thesubstance will not be biomagnified to a large extent, indicating that the risk for human beingsis limited. Tests carried out in Japan show that daily ingestion of TBT is clearly detectable inhumans. A risk for the humanity can therefore not be fully discharged. Further investigationsare needed in order to left out that the negative outcomes exist which are frequently asked forin chemical reports regarding the subject. / Båtbottenfärger innehållande biociden bisTributyltennoxid (TBTO) har använts sedan 1960-talet för att minska förekomst av beväxning på skepp/båtskrov. Den första januari 2003förbjöds båtbottenfärger innehållande TBTO i Sverige. Det innebär att all användning avfärger innehållande substansen är förbjuden. Förbudet infördes beroende på alarmerandeobservationer som utveckling av imposex hos vattenlevande organismer som inte vartilltänkta att påverkas. Imposex är utskjutning av manlig könsdel på kvinnlig främstvattensnigel och orsakas av exponering för Tributyltenn (TBT). Konsekvenserna kan bli stördreproduktionsförmåga. Efter restriktionen förekommer ämnet mindre i miljön. Trots dettafinns oro hos FN-organ. Fortfarande existerar ämnet i miljön och påverkar omgivande natur.Framförallt finns TBT i sediment samt i vatten vilket ännu kan medföra effekter hosvattenlevande organismer. Som en konsekvens av detta existerar TBT även i både biota och iföda. TBT har observerats i främst fiskar och skaldjur. Ämnet är bioackumulerande, vilket göratt substansen ansamlas i lipofila kroppsvävnader. TBT lagras bland annat i levern.Vattenlevande organismer kan därmed föra ämnet vidare i näringskedjan. Eftersommänniskan räknas som toppkonsument kan inte en risk uteslutas, med hänsyn tillnäringskedjan och biomagnifikation. Enligt litteraturen biomagnifieras inte substansen, vilketförhoppningsvis kan innebära en mindre fara för människan. Undersökningar gjorda i Japanvisar att ett dagligt intag av TBT är mätbart i människan. En liten risk för mänskligheten kandärför inte uteslutas. För att kunna utesluta att negativa effekter existerar krävs vidareundersökningar, vilket också flertalet rapporter i ämnet efterfrågar / www.ima.kth.se

The increasing scale of economic activity, i.e. industrialization, urbanization, rising standards ofliving and population growth, has led to a sharp increase in the quantity of waste generated. The environment has a limited capacity for waste assimilation. If too much waste enters the environment rather than being recycled or reused, the assimilative capacity of the environment isput under too much stress to be able to handle the total quantity of waste generated. Nowadays,due to improper treatment, waste management is something that affects people. In the Republicof Moldova handling of all types of waste such as municipal, hazardous, industrial etc. relies onlandfilling only. This thesis is a basis for decision-making for local authorities and is about environmental systems analysis and computer modelling of municipal solid waste management in Chisinau. The ORWARE model was used for systems analysis, aiming to examine the environmental impacts that could be expected from different future alternatives (scenarios) for future municipal solid waste management. By having a strong foundation in life cycle assessment, ORWARE intends to cover the environmental impacts through the entire life cycle of waste management.The model consists of several submodels starting from the generation point; collection,transportation, biological treatment, incineration and final disposal. Moreover, the model comprises material recycling of plastics and cardboard. Different solid waste management scenarios were constructed, simulated and compared with each other. The first scenario was the current waste management in Chisinau that contains only landfilling. Three other scenarios for future waste management in (2020) were constructed and simulated. They took into consideration that a certain amount of materials will be recycled in 2020; consequently the same amount of materials was assumed to be recycled in all future scenarios. The business as usual scenario had as a basis landfilling with greater amount of waste as in the year 2005. The incineration scenario had a mixture of landfilling and incineration with energy recovery. The last scenario, the biological treatment scenario, differed from theincineration scenario in that 25% of the organic waste was treated by anaerobic digestion with biogas production and fertilizer for spreading on arable land. The simulation results show that the incineration and anaerobic digestion scenarios have great environmental advantages over the landfill scenario. Even though only one forth of the organic waste is treated biologically, the last scenario is the most environmentally friendly treatment option. If more organic waste will be separated and treated biologically, the impact will be furtherreduced. Economical aspects were not included in this study, due to limited time but a further analysis of the costs is necessary for a proper decision making. / www.ima.kth.se

Projektet har genomförts på uppdrag av Micronic Laser Systems AB och är genomfört somett examensarbete. Projektets mål och syfte ät att skapa den inledande dokumentationen ienlighet med ISO 14001. Dokumentationen som framställs kommer att lämpa sig som utgångspunkt vid vidare arbete med miljöledningssystemet ISO 14001. I rapporten kan en teoretisk studie av alla delar inom miljöledningssystemet ISO 14001 läsas. Dock genom begränsningen har examensarbetet inriktat sig på planeringsfasen av ISO 14001. All dokumentation ska med lätthet kunna övertas av någon inom bolaget och med enkelhet vara möjligt att vidareutveckla. Denna arbetsmetodik följer tanken med ständiga förbättringar. I överenskommelse mellan beställare och författare har det inledande arbetet med miljöledningssystemet öka miljömedvetenheten hos de anställda samt minska miljöbelastning från företagets verksamhet. Första steget i examensarbetet var att påbörja omfattande litteratur studier. När dessa var avslutade initierades arbetet på Micronic Laser Systems AB med att utforma de grundläggande delarna av miljöledningssystemet. Intervjuer, studiebesök och litteraturstudier är de metoder som har använts för att insamla information om hur dokumentationen för ISO 14001 ska skapas. Då Micronic internt använder sig av en projektmall, PPS från TietoEnator, användes denna mall för att utföra projektet. I slutfasen avexamensarbetet har denna rapport sammanställts och den inledande dokumentationen för Micronics miljöledningssystem har överlämnats till bolaget. Resultatet av examensarbetet kan ses i form av de miljöaspekter som är betydande för Micronic, konkurrenters miljöprestanda, lagar och andra krav samt uppsatta miljömål. De miljöaspekter som är mest betydande för Micronic är att inga instruktioner på miljöområdet existerar för val/inköp av produkter, material, kemikalier och tjänster,förbrukning av framkallare, elförbrukning, transporter samt inga instruktioner angående energibesparing existerar. Till exempel stänga av energikrävande utrustning då den ej behövs. Miljöprestationer från konkurrenter kan sammanfattas i att samtliga huvudkonkurrenter till Micronic på halvledarsidan har någon form av miljöåtagande. På displaysidan är det endast en av huvudkonkurrenterna som visar externt att de arbetar med att förbättra sig inom miljöorådet. Krav från myndigheter, kunder och ägare har identifierats. Lagar, förordningar samt i viss mån föreskrifter har lokaliserats och en tabell har upprättats. Dock återstår mycket arbeteför att försäkra att Micronic följer alla lagar på miljösidan. Krav från kunder kunde inte identifieras medan en av ägarna, Robur, kräver att Micronic ska uppfylla vissa krav på miljösidan. Dessa är dock subjektivt bedömda av Roburs och inga kvantitativa krav kundeerhållas. Om ett miljöledningssystem är infört på det bolag där Robur genomför en revision värderas detta högt. / This report is a final thesis for the institute of environmental management at the Royal Institute of Technology, KTH. The project took place at Micronic Laser Systems. The aimof the project has been to develop the initial documentation of the environmental standardISO 14001 for Micronic Laser Systems AB. The documentation can be used as a milestone for further use if the board at Micronic decides to implement the environmental standard. Inthe report a theoretical documentation of al the different chapters that are included in ISO14001 has been made. Due to the limitations of the report only the planning phase of the standard is documented in this thesis. Al the documentation made should bee made so that anyone at Micronic can continue were the work was left of and there after get continually improved. This follows the basic idea, of ISO standards, with continual improvement. As en agreement between the orderer and the author the project shall result in a increase ofthe environmental performance for the company and increases employee’s environmental awareness. To get information about the environmental management system ISO 14001 vast literaturestudies was made. When this was done the initial documentation of ISO 14001 were beginning to take form for Micronic. Methods used to gather information to make this documentation were interviews, books and a field studies. In the last stages of the project the report was put together and thereafter handed to Micronic to bee used. Micronics most important environmental aspects, competitor’s environmental performanceand laws and demands are the result of the work made. Those environmental aspects of significant value is that there is no environmental instructions and routines concerning purchase of materials, products, materials, chemicalsand services, used developers, electricity consumption, transports and no requirements of energy savings are made at the company. For example like turning of the energydemanding equipment when not in use. Competitors in the field of semiconductors are very good at undertaking environmental issues. Every competitor in the field of semiconductors has some sort of undertakingregarding environmental issues. On the other hand in the field of displays only one competitor has made an effort to improve them selves in the environmental field. Legal demands, demands from costumers and demands from owners have been identified. Legal demands haven been identified with the help of Swedish legislation that is found inthe “miljöbalk”. Laws that were found interesting for Micronic were put together in an Excel sheet. Environmental demands from consumers could not bee found but it isinteresting to mention that owners have made some desires about environmentalperformance. The large capital investment bank, “Roburs”, demands that environmental issues are taken into consideration at the companies they invest a large amount of money in. / www.ima.kth.se

Det här examensarbetet har utförts på uppdrag av Stockholm Vatten AB och har bedrivits vid Norsborgs vattenverk i Botkyrka kommun utanför Stockholm. Syftet med arbetet har varit att ge underlag för minskning av organiskt material i dricksvattnet. Följande frågor besvaras: • Påverkar aktiverad kiselsyra reduktionen av organiskt material • Påverkar beredningen av den aktiverade kiselsyran reduktionen av organiskt material • Kan den aktiverade kiselsyran ersättas med aluminiumsulfat • Vilka effekter innebär en ersättning av aktiverad kiselsyra med aluminiumsulfat Norsborgs vattenverk tar råvatten från Mälaren och reningsprocessen innefattar mekanisk, kemisk och biologisk rening. I den kemiska reningen används aluminiumsulfat och aktiverad kiselsyra. Dessa kemikalier benämns fällningskemikalier och tillsätts i syfte att agglomerera föroreningarna i vattnet till en sådan storlek att de kan avskiljas genom sedimentering och filtrering i sandfilter. Förändringar i råvattenkvaliteten möts traditionellt genom att justera dosen av dessa kemikalier. De senaste årens förändringar i råvattenkvaliteten har bl.a. lett till att halten organiskt material ökat i råvattnet. Traditionell justering av fällningskemikalierna har inte varittillräcklig för att reducera halterna vilket lett till att halten organiskt material även ökat idricksvattnet. Organiskt material kan vara bärare av skadliga ämnen såsom pesticider och tungmetaller samt bidra till ett flertal negativa effekter såsom uppkomst av cancerframkallande klororganiska ämnen, bakterietillväxt i ledningsnätet och ökat behovav desinfektionsmedel. Tidigare undersökningar har visat att aktiverad kiselsyra troligen inte har någon effekt på reduktionen av organiskt material och att reduktionsförmåganhos aluminiumsulfat kan vara begränsad. Ovanstående samt att prisbilden förfällningskemikalierna de senaste 10 åren förändrats till aluminiumsulfatets fördel utgör bakgrunden till att en utredning ansetts angelägen. Examensarbetet är en del av denna utredning och har innefattat både fullskaleförsök och laboratorieförsök. Fullskaleförsöken har undersökt fällningsresultaten utifrån enuppsättning doseringar med aktiverad kiselsyra och aluminiumsulfat. Vattenflödena har kunnat hållas separerade under försöken vilket möjliggjort analys av reningsresultat avrespektive dosering. Laboratorieförsöken har innefattat studier av beredningen av aktiverad kiselsyra och fällningsförsök med olika utformningar av beredningen. Varken fullskaleförsöken eller laboratorieförsöken har kunnat påvisa att aktiverad kiselsyra har någon effekt på reduktion av organiskt material. Aluminiumsulfat visade sig dock kunna reducera både organiskt material och grumlighet. Förmågan att reducera grumlighet var dock sämre än för motsvarande kostnadsekvivalent dos aktiveradkiselsyra, främst vid låg vattentemperatur. Aluminiumsulfatets reducerande effekt påorganiskt material visade sig nå ett maximum vid en reduktion på 2,5 mg TOC/l. Dettaoavsett aluminiumsulfatdos, råvattenkvalitet och andra yttre omständigheter. Rekommendationen är att ersätta den aktiverade kiselsyran med aluminiumsulfat motsvarande två kostnadsekvivalenter aktiverad kiselsyra. Detta eftersomundersökningen visar att optimal reduktion av organiskt material och grumlighet uppnås vid denna nivå. Reduktionen av organiskt material skulle möjligtvis kunna höjas ytterligare om fällnings pH sänktes. Det är även möjligt att det outfällda organiska materialet är av sådan karaktär att det inte kan reduceras ytterligare med befintlig teknik. En karaktärisering av det outfällda organiska materialet skulle därför kunna ge underlag för val av lämpliga reningstillägg. / www.ima.kth.se

Part 1. Introduction This chapter outlines the broad field of study and then introduces the research problems addressed within this thesis. It provides a thesis outline and describes the intended audience for the thesis. 1.1. Nature of problem At the global level, recently tourism business has yet considered as one of the largest industries. It produces 5.5% of global GDP and employs 212 million people, and accordingly to the World Resources Institute, tourism overall has shown 4% growth per annum [WTO, 2001]. In 2020 total turnover from international tourism (excl. inside) is projected to reach 2 trillion US dollars, as a result Global Domestic Product by tourism will practically double. Requirements to implement sustainable management for this large industry are becoming important challenges to achieve global development aims for society. Tourism is defined often as a travel with recreational and educational aims. Such traveling has a number of close relations with environment. Transportation and consumption of tourism services is an important aspect of adverse environmental impact, as time progresses, it is assumed that the extent of tourism will grow [WTO, 2007] and become one of the main categories of environmental impacts among anthropogenic environmental pressures. Additionally, tourism has a major impact on local communities in tourist destinations. It can be a significant source of income and employment for local people, yet also pose a threat to an area’s social fabric, natural and cultural heritage, upon which it ultimately depends, however if tourism is well planned and managed it can be a driving force for natural and cultural conservation. Moreover, much tourism has remained a destructive force for natural areas, often in combination with detrimental socioeconomic effects for the communities within which it operates. These factors have led to recognition of the tourism sector’s need to incorporate the principles of sustainable development. Additionally, accordingly with the prognoses made by WTO, CIS and Eastern Europe is considered as the region with the fastest growth rates over the 2000-2020 period for the tourism industry [WTO, 2001]. This is mainly due to the economical growth in these countries and Western Europe, the biggest world consumer of tourism products and services. However, in the region there is a lack of experience of visitor managing due to relatively short time of tourism practices; and problem of the managing tourism is becoming actual and central for these trends. Tourism has, in recent years, received increasing attention as a low-impact, non-consumptive development option, in particular for developing countries. This positive view contrasts with the fact that major parts of the tourist industry have remained harmful to the environment and that some aspects, like the use of energy and its global consequences have virtually been excluded from the discussion on sustainable tourism development [Gössling, 2000] Tourism growth includes a wide range of recreational activities. And it is evidently that the tourism based on protected area is also becoming more popular. The world in the future will provide a wide penetration of technology into all spheres of life. Therefore, it will become possible to live with limited exposure to other people and nature; and in consequence, people will crave the human relations and nature landscapes, so, nature5 based tourism will be the principal means through which they seek to achieve this. Protected areas will play tourist role, as well as a protective role for increasing industrial pressure on the human environment. At the same time, living species are threatened as never before, as the protected areas are exposed to the pressures of unsustainable development. It is mandatory to use the precautionary approach concerned about tourism in protected areas, given the risk of damage and destruction to this unique natural resource. Visitor impact management is ever more important as the number of tourists increases, and their distribution is often concentrated in major tourism destinations in ecologically vulnerable areas Although Belarus legislation has the list of general aims for development tourism in sustainable way and especially in protected area, there is apparently lacking of necessary investigations and management practices in the tourism activity. Mostly all protected area does not have sustainable tourism practices and management procedures. In accordance with the last report made by UNECE in 2005 there is still no one investigations concerned tourism impacts over protected areas in Belarus as well as certification papers that encompass performance indicators for implementation of eco labels in tourism do not still exist. Therefore, the study will add some practical data concerned these aspects and try to make a review on current conditions for effectively tourism developments within study areas and for further investigations. 1.2. Aims, Objectives Literature sources and practical examples indicate that in some cases tourism may provide new alternatives to develop visitor experiences with greater economical incentives and less environmental burden. However, it is unclear which drivers influence Belarusian tourism in protected areas, and what areas should be the focus of future research. Therefore, the aim of this work is to make effort to determine the management systems within the Belarusian national parks (the National Park “Belavezhskaya Pushcha” and the Reserve “Berezinsky), accordingly a sustainable approach with accent on monitoring tourism phase, as a decision making tool for sustainable tourism management and improvement of local conditions. There is a certain range of objectives to achieve the main goal which is listed below: - To identify key principles of the management systems within study areas; - To identify regional and local features of existing management practices; - To find the advantages and disadvantages of current tourism trends within the considered areas; - To explore a system of monitoring related to sustainable perspective; / www.ima.kth.se

The Ili-Balkhash basin (IB basin) is a large freshwater system, covering 413 000 km2 in Kazakhstan, China and Kyrgyzstan. The main part of the watershed is situated in Kazakstan (85%) and a smaller part in northwestern China (15 %). The Kazakhstan's part of the IB basin embraces the territory of the Almaty region and Xinijang region. The water of the western lake Balkhash is slightly salty (1,2 %), while the eastern part has a considerably higher salt contamination (3,9 %). The lake has a surface area of over 16 000 km2 and a length of 600 km. The average depth of the lake is six metres and its maximum depth reaches 26 metres. There are three main rivers flowing into the lake: Ili River, with a large delta, the Karatal River, with a smaller delta, and the Aqsu River. The biggest of them being the Ili river - already influenced by a reservoir created upstream and heavy agricultural use - which flows from China. Chinese authorities intend to make an increased use of the Ili river and thus China will come to have a strong influence on the Balkhash lake. The Xinijang region is highly populated and the population rate is increasing significantly through the combination of natural population increase and internal migration from the eastern part of China. The lake is very shallow and very sensitive to changes in water transport. Current development poses a severe threat to the watershed and specifically to lake Balkhash, since more and more water is diverted from the rivers for societal use, mainly agricultural irrigation. At the moment, the lake and the whole watershed suffer from ecological problems that mostly have been created artificially, by human hands. The Kapchagai reservoir, built along the middle reaches of the Ili River in 1966, and used for water storage since 1970, allowed the development of irrigation agriculture along the lower reaches of the river. The reservoir serves for hydroelectric power generation and for irrigation water supply. Since its inauguration, water use has increased along the lower reaches of the Ili River. In addition, increasing pollution emissions and an increased salinity of the lake water have seriously affected the fishing industry and diminished the surrounding habitats. So far, no action has been taken to reverse the ecological damage that the lake has suffered. In a worst scenario, a development similar to that for the Aral Sea can be foreseen. Future water management in the region will require improved water management policies, improved planning of water resources management, improved monitoring of different activities and their impact and an increased regional international cooperation, mainly between Kazakhstan and China. The Thesis is a compilation of information on the past and present situation of the IB basin, ending in a discussion of the sustainability of three future scenarios developed: (i) a business as usual scenario where there is a possibility that the lake will be divided into two separated small lakes, (ii) a non-conscious development with rapid economic growth scenario, where we risk the same ecological disaster as that happened to the Aral Sea and (iii) a sustainable development scenario, where the Balkhash lake can be saved. The discussion ends in the conclusion that there is a risk that a non-conscious development based on a rapid economic growth will result in severe long-term impacts and non-sustainable development in the IB basin / www.ima.kth.se