Methamphetamine abuse is a serious public health concern affecting millions of people worldwide, and there are currently no viable pharmacotherapies to treat methamphetamine abuse. Methamphetamine increases extracellular dopamine (DA) concentrations through an interaction with the DA transporter (DAT) and the vesicular monoamine transporter-2 (VMAT2), leading to reward and abuse. While numerous studies have focused on DAT as a target for the discovery of pharmacotherapies to treat psychostimulant abuse, these efforts have been met with limited success. Taking into account the fact that methamphetamine interacts with VMAT2 to increase DA extracellular concentrations; the focus of the current work was to develop novel compounds that interact with VMAT2 to inhibit the effects of methamphetamine. Lobeline, the principal alkaloid found in Lobelia inflata, inhibits VMAT2 binding and function. Inhibition of VMAT2 was hypothesized to be responsible for the observed lobeline-induced inhibition of methamphetamine-evoked DA release in striatal slices and decrease in methamphetamine self-administration in rats. Lobeline has recently completed Phase Ib clinical trials demonstrating safety in methamphetamine abusers. Lobeline is also a potent inhibitor of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), limiting selectivity for VMAT2. Chemical defunctionalization of the lobeline molecule afforded analogs, meso-transdiene (MTD) and lobelane, which exhibited decreased affinity for nAChRs. MTD, an unsaturated analog of lobeline, exhibited similar affinity for VMAT2 and increased affinity for DAT compared to lobeline. Conformationally-restricted MTD analogs exhibited decreased affinity for DAT compared to MTD, while retaining affinity at VMAT2. One analog, UKMH-106 exhibited high affinity and selectivity for VMAT2 and inhibited METH-evoked DA release from striatal slices. Unfortunately, the MTD analogs exhibited poor water solubility which limited further investigation of these promising analogs. Importantly lobelane, a saturated analog of lobeline, exhibited increased affinity and selectivity for VMAT2 compared to lobeline. To improve water solubility, a N-1,2-dihydroxypropyl (diol) moiety was incorporated into the lobelane molecule. GZ-793A, an N-1,2-diol analog, potently and competitively inhibited VMAT2 function, exhibiting over 50-fold selectivity for VMAT2 over DAT, serotonin transporters and nAChRs. GZ-793A released DA from preloaded synaptic vesicles, fitting a two-site model with the high-affinity site inhibited by tetrabenazine and reserpine (classical VMAT2 inhibitors), suggesting a VMAT2-mediated mechanism of release. Further, low concentrations of GZ-793A that selectively interact with high-affinity sites on VMAT2 to evoke DA release, inhibit methamphetamine-evoked DA release from synaptic vesicles. Results showed that increasing concentrations of GZ-793A produced a rightward shift in the METH concentration response; however, the Schild regression revealed a slope different from unity, consistent with surmountable allosteric inhibition. In addition, GZ-793A specifically inhibited methamphetamine-evoked DA release in striatal slices and methamphetamine self-administration in rats. To examine the possibility that GZ-793A produced DA depletion, the effect of a behaviorally active dose of GZ-793A on DA content in striatal tissue and striatal vesicles was determined. GZ-793A administration did not alter DA content in striatal tissue or vesicles and pretreatment with GZ-793A prior to methamphetamine administration did not exacerbate the DA depleting effects of methamphetamine. Importantly, GZ-793A was shown to protect against methamphetamine-induced striatal DA depletions. Thus, GZ-793A represents an exciting new lead in the development of pharmacotherapies to treat methamphetamine abuse.

Résumé : La protéine Gα[indice inférieur]s est une GTPase hétérotrimérique, actrice principale de la signalisation intracellulaire couplée aux récepteurs couplés aux protéines G (RCPG). Un de ses rôles majeurs est de transmettre l’activation d’un RCPG par un agoniste au niveau de la membrane plasmique, en signal intracellulaire, ceci grâce à un changement conformationnel dû à sa liaison à un GTP. En réponse, la protéine Gα[indice inférieur]s activera principalement la voie de l’AMP cyclique. Or, depuis quelques années, la protéine Gα[indice inférieur]s semble impliquée dans un tout autre phénomène intracellulaire, qu’est le trafic vésiculaire. En effet, sa localisation au niveau du compartiment endosomal laisse perplexe. Certains ont démontré le couplage de cette sous-unité avec des récepteurs internalisés, induisant une signalisation à partir de la membrane endosomale, tandis que d’autres ont démontré une implication de cette sous-unité au niveau du complexe de triage protéique présent sur la membrane endosomale. Ainsi, l’équipe du Dr Farquhar a démontré l’implication de Gα[indice inférieur]s avec la protéine hepatocyte growth factor-regulated tyrosine kinase substrate (HRS) dans la dégradation du récepteur à l’epidermal growth factor (EGF). A travers nos travaux, nous avons pu démontrer une implication générale de la sous-unité Gα[indice inférieur]s dans la régulation de la dégradation endosomale de nombreux récepteurs, comme les RCPG. Nous avons identifié deux complexes, un ubiquitine-indépendant et un ubiquitine-dépendant. Le premier, ubiquitine-indépendant, implique une interaction directe de la protéine Gα[indice inférieur]s avec les proteines GPCR associated sorting protein 1 (GASP-1) et dysbindin. Ces deux protéines ont déjà été démontrées comme étant indispensables à l’adressage du récepteur delta opioïde (DOP) vers le compartiment lysosomal. Nous avons identifié que GASP-1 et dysbindin font le lien entre Gα[indice inférieur]s et HRS, et induisent l’adressage aux lysosomes du récepteur DOP, via les complexes endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT). Le second complexe identifié, ubiquitine-dépendant, est spécifique au récepteur C-X-C motif receptor 4 (CXCR4). L’adressage de ce récepteur aux lysosomes fait intervenir de nombreuses enzymes ubiquitine-ligases ainsi que des enzymes déubiquitinases. Nous avons démontré que Gα[indice inférieur]s, via son interaction directe avec l’E3 ubiquitine ligase Deltex 3 like (DTX3L), module l’activation d’une autre E3 ubiquitine ligase atrophin-1 interacting protein 4 (AIP4) et influence l’état d’ubiquitination du complexe ESCRT0, ceci régulant la dégradation du récepteur CXCR4. Paradoxalement, nous avons pu remarquer que les complexes identifiés ne semblent pas affecter les récepteurs couplés à Gα[indice inférieur]s. En effet, les récepteurs connus pour être couplés à la protéine Gα[indice inférieur]s, d’un point de vue signalétique, n’ont pas leur trafic intracellulaire affecté par la déplétion de l’expression de la protéine Gα[indice inférieur]s. De plus, l’état d’activation de Gα[indice inférieur]s ne semble pas influencer ces complexes. / Abstract : The Gα[subscript]s protein is a heterotrimeric GTPase protein, lead actress of intracellular signaling coupled to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR). One of its major role is to transmit the binding of a ligand on the GPCR at the plasma membrane in intracellular signaling, thanks to a conformational change due to binding to GTP. In response, the activated Gα[subscript]s protein will mainly stimulate the way of cyclic AMP. However, in recent studies, the Gα[subscript]s protein appears to be involved in other intracellular phenomenon, like vesicular trafficking, due to its location at the endosomal compartment. Some studies showed the coupling of this subunit with internalized receptors, inducing signaling from the endosomal membrane, while others have shown implication of this subunit in the protein sorting complex presents on the endosomal membrane. Thus, the team of Dr. Farquhar demonstrated the involvement of Gα[subscript]s protein with hepatocyte growth factor-regulated tyrosine kinase substrate (HRS) protein, in the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) degradation. Through our study, we demonstrated a general involvement of Gα[subscript]s subunit in the regulation of endosomal degradation of many receptors, such as GPCRs. We identified two complexes, an ubiquitin-independent and an ubiquitin-dependent. The first, ubiquitin-independent one, involves a direct interaction of Gα[subscript]s protein with GPCR associated sorting protein 1 (GASP-1) and dysbindin. These two proteins have been previously shown to be essential for delta opioid receptor (DOP) targeting to the lysosomal compartment. We identified that GASP-1 and dysbindin make the link between Gα[subscript]s and HRS, and induce the DOP receptor addressing to lysosomes, via complexes with endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT). The second complex identified is the ubiquitin-dependent complex, which is specific to the CXC motif receptor 4 (CXCR4). The lysosomal sorting of this receptor involves many ubiquitin ligases and deubiquitinases enzymes. We demonstrated that Gα[subscript]s, through a direct interaction with the E3 ubiquitin ligase Deltex 3 like (DTX3L), modulates the activation of another E3 ubiquitin Atrophin-1 interacting protein ligase 4 (AIP4) and influences the ESCRT-0 ubiquitination pattern. This complex regulates the CXCR4 receptor degradation. Paradoxically, we observed that receptors coupled to Gα[subscript]s are not affected. Indeed, the receptors known to be coupled to the Gα[subscript]s protein have not their intracellular trafficking affected by Gα[subscript]s depletion. Moreover, Gα[subscript]s activation state does not seem to influence these complexes.

Abstract FUNCTIONAL AND BIOCHEMICAL CONSEQUENCES OF SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISMS IN THE HUMAN VESICULAR MONOAMINE TRANSPORTER 1 GENE (SLC18A1) By Sally Gamal Shukry, B.S. A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Biology at Virginia Commonwealth University. Virginia Commonwealth University, 2012 Major Advisor: Jennifer K. Stewart Associate Professor and Graduate Director, Department of Biology Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in the human VMAT1 gene (SLC18A1) have been associated with schizophrenia in three different populations: Han Chinese, Western European and Japanese. Effects of these mutations on transport function of the hVMAT1 protein have not been reported. The goal of this study was to investigate functional and biochemical differences in human VMAT1 proteins with a threonine or proline at amino acid position 4 (Thr4Pro) and a serine or threonine at position 98 (Ser98Thr). COS1 cells were transfected with variant SNPs coding for 4Thr/98Ser, 4Pro/98Ser, or 4Thr98Thr. Western blotting demonstrated robust over expression of the genes and no differences in electrophoretic mobility of the proteins. Maximal transport of serotonin by the VMAT1 protein with 4Pro/98Ser was less than that of the 4Thr/98Ser or the 4Thr/98Thr. Response of the 4Pro/Ser98 to the VMAT inhibitor reserpine was lower than that of the 4Thr/98Thr. These findings suggest mechanisms for human VMAT1 links to schizophrenia.

The dynamics and function of the actin cytoskeleton depends on polymerization and branching of actin filaments, an event that is stimulated by Arp2/3. Arp2/3-dependent branching is closely linked to the pentameric WASH complex which consists of WASH, strumpellin, SWIP, CCDC53 and FAM21. WASH complex is associated mainly with endosomes. It was traditionally localized to retromer-coated domains of early endosomes which enable sorting and recycling of endocytosed material. However, latest scientific data extend the role of WASH complex to other endosomal or even non-endosomal sites. Of all the subunits of the WASH complex, FAM21 is the most prominent hub for protein-protein interactions, thanks to its long unstructured C-terminal domain. In my diploma thesis FAM21 was localized to early and late endosomes and lysosomes of U2OS human cell line. Dictyostelium discoideum was then used as a model organism to investigate FAM21 protein interactions as well as the proteins associated specifically with the C terminal domain of FAM21. Results of the study shed new light on the complex network of FAM21 interactions and question the long-standing theories on the function of WASH complex in cells. Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

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A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg, 2016. / South Africa, as one of the leaders in mining industry, due to the variety and quantity of minerals produced, has been and is still producing a number of mine tailings which are contaminated by heavy metals. Heavy metals are very harmful to plants and especially to human beings and animals due to their non-biodegradable nature. The problem of environmental metal pollution could be combated by the establishment of Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (AM) vegetation on the surface of mine tailings. Besides the toxicity of the substrate, such areas usually lack essential nutrients (mainly N, P, and K) and organic matter. AM fungi contribute to soil structure by forming micro- and macro- soil aggregates within the net of external hyphae. Their presence may reduce stress caused by lack of nutrients or organic matter and increase plant resistance to pathogens, drought and heavy metals. Therefore, mycorrhizal fungi may become the key factor in successful plant revegetation of heavy-metal-polluted areas by promoting the success of plant establishment and increasing soil fertility and quality. The aim of this project was to identify AM fungi from a number of heavy metal sites in South Africa using both morphological and molecular techniques, followed by the evaluation of heavy metal distribution and localisation in mycorrhizal roots. Soil samples were collected from three different provinces, namely: Gauteng, Mpumalanga and North West provinces. The sites were selected based on their historical and current heavy metal contamination. Indigenous AM fungal isolates (which are adapted to local soil conditions) can stimulate plant growth better than non-indigenous isolates. AM fungal spores were isolated from 100g of representative soil sample by the wet sieving and decanting method, followed by assessment of spore numbers and infective propagules. The spores of a subset of the pot samples were mounted on microscope slides in polyvinyl lactic acid glycerol and identified by morphological characteristics to the level of genus or species. Most of the spores counted were observed in a 45 μm sieve. These spores were tiny and had different sizes, colours and shapes. The majority of the observed spores were small, brown and oval in shape. For morphological identification, plant roots were stained and hyphae were found to be the most abundant in roots. For molecular identification, two sets of nested PCR primers, namely NS1 & NS4 coupled with AML1 & AML2, were employed in this study due to their ability to amplify all subgroups of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AM fungal, Glomeromycota), while excluding sequences from other organisms. Through both morphological characteristics and molecular identification, the following fungal genera were identified for the first time in the studied sites in South Africa. The study identified a total of 14 AM fungal genera and 55 AM fungal species, which are: Glomus (15), Acaulospora (11), Scutellospora (6), Gigaspora (6), Rhizophagus (3), Funneliformis (3), Archaeospora (2), Claroideoglomus (2), Ambispora (2), Sclerocystis (1), Fuscutata (1), Entrophospora (1), Diversispora (1), Paraglomus (1). Both Glomus and Acualospora have been observed to be the highest occurring genera in the analysed soil samples, followed by Scutellospora and Gigaspora and others mentioned. PIXE technique was successful in localising elemental concentration in both plant roots and AM fungal structures, as well as in indicating the large vesicles in root tissue. AM fungal structures in the outer cortex or outer epidermal layer of the root cross-sections were observable, as shown by the more significantly enriched Si in the vesicles and arbuscules. Distinctive elemental maps can be used to localise sites of colonisation and verification of the symbiotic nature of the tissue. This indicates that a range of metals can be sequestered in AM fungal structures above levels in surrounding host root tissue, and demonstrates the potential of Micro-PIXE to determine metal accumulation and elemental distribution in mycorrhizal plant roots and inter-and intracellular AM fungal structures. This research highlights the potential of AM fungi for inoculation of plants as a prerequisite for successful restoration of heavy metal contaminated soils. It also illustrates the importance of AM fungal diversity in selected high heavy metal (HM) sites in RSA, particularly in the North West and the Gauteng gold mining slime dams. Therefore, phytoremediation of mine tailings by mycorrhizal plants seems to be one of the most promising lines of research on mine tailings contamination by heavy metals. The strategies which evolved during this project have great potential for phytoremediation of toxic mining sites, and thus can help mitigate the environmental problems, especially in the mining waste sites. / LG2017

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Les syndécans forment une famille de quatre protéines transmembranaires qui sont substituées par l'héparane sulfate. Grâce à ces chaînes glucidiques extracellulaires, les syndécans contrôlent la signalisation d'une pléthore de facteurs de croissance et de molécules d'adhésion. Une autre caractéristique remarquable des syndécans est la conservation de leur domaine intracellulaire au cours de l'évolution. Ce domaine contient un motif C-terminal qui peut induire une interaction avec les protéines dites «PDZ». Les interactions PDZ sont promiscues et les protéines PDZ contrôlent divers aspects de la signalisation cellulaire et de la communication cellule-cellule. Quatre interactions syndecan-PDZ ont été décrites à ce jour et toutes ces interactions ont des effets drastiques sur le comportement des cellules. En particulier, il a été documenté que l'interaction syndécan-synténine a un impact sur le trafic intracellulaire de molécules de signalisation liant l’héparan sulfate. De plus, les syndécans et la synténine coopèrent dans le contrôle la biogenèse des exosomes, organites extracellulaires fonctionnant comme des médiateurs importants de la communication cellule-cellule (y compris dans différentes maladies systémiques comme le cancer). Le protéome humain compte 150 protéines PDZ qui contiennent 266 domaines PDZ. Dans ce travail, nous avons mis à jour la complexité de l'interactome syndecan-PDZ et testé son impact sur le trafic membranaire et sur la composition des vésicules extracellulaires. Notre travail ouvre la voie à une meilleure compréhension des réseaux moléculaires contrôlant la communication cellule-cellule en physio-pathologie. / Syndecans form a family of four transmembrane proteins that are substituted with heparan sulfate. By virtue of these extracellular carbohydrate chains, syndecans control the signaling of a plethora of growth factors and adhesion molecules. Another remarkable feature of syndecans is the conservation of their intracellular domain through evolution. This domain contains a C-terminal motif that can mediate interaction with PDZ proteins. PDZ interactions are promiscuous and PDZ proteins control various aspects of cell signaling and cell-cell communication. Four syndecan-PDZ interactions have been described so far and all these interactions have broad effects on cell behavior. In particular, it was documented that syndecan-syntenin interaction has impact on the intracellular trafficking of heparan sulfate cargo. Moreover syndecan-syntenin controls the biogenesis of exosomes, extracellular organelles emerging as important mediators of cell-cell communication in health and diseases. The human proteome contains 150 PDZ proteins and 266 PDZ domains. Here we started addressing the complexity of the syndecan-PDZ interactome and tested for its impact on membrane trafficking and on the composition of extracellular vesicles. Our work paves the way for a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms and networks controlling cell-cell communication in health and disease.

Doctor of Philosophy(PhD) / The aims of this project were to contribute to the elucidation of the role of the cholinergic system in attention and memory, two cognitive processes severely compromised in Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and to evaluate and develop tools for the functional molecular imaging of this system with a view to improving knowledge of AD and other neurological disorders. Towards the first aim, the specific anti-cholinergic toxin 192 IgG-saporin (SAP) was administered to female Sprague-Dawley rats via either an intracerebroventricular (icv) or an intracortical route and animals were tested with a vibrissal-stimulation reaction-time task and an object recognition task to evaluate their attentional and mnemonic function, respectively. The second aim was approached in two ways. Firstly, relative neuronal densities from animals with icv lesions were assessed with both ex vivo and in vitro autoradiography with the specific cholinergic radiopharmaceuticals [123I]iodobenzovesamicol (123IBVM) and 125I-A-85380, ligands for the vesicular acetylcholine transporter and the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, respectively. Secondly, a number of in vivo and in vitro studies were performed on a novel and unique molecular imaging system (TOHR), with which it had been hoped initially to image eventually SAP-lesioned animals, with a view to measuring and ameliorating its performance characteristics and assessing its in-principle suitability for small-animal molecular imaging. The behavioural studies support a critical role for the cholinergic system in normal attentional function. Additionally, in accord with literature evidence, no significant impairment was observed in mnemonic function. It is postulated however that the results observed in the intracortically-lesioned animals support the published hypothesis that cholinergic projections to the perirhinal cortex are critical for object-recognition memory. In autoradiographic studies, SAP-lesioned animals demonstrated reduced uptake of 123IBVM in multiple regions. A reduction of nicotinic receptors was also seen in SAP-lesioned animals, a novel finding supportive of the excellent characteristics of radioiodinated I-A-85380. Examination of the performance characteristics of the TOHR support in principle its utility for targeted small-animal molecular imaging studies.