Submitted by Neusa Fagundes (neusa.fagundes@unioeste.br) on 2018-02-26T18:22:01Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Noeli_Dacroce2017.pdf: 2302236 bytes, checksum: 550ce50ca2f999bf32126fc40891d614 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-02-26T18:22:01Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Noeli_Dacroce2017.pdf: 2302236 bytes, checksum: 550ce50ca2f999bf32126fc40891d614 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-07-17 / The poultry Industry has a relevant attribution for agribusiness in Brazil, regarding the economic and social aspect. However, given the high consumption of water and electricity, and the high generation of waste, it becomes aggressive and polluting the environment. The objective of this research is to characterize poultry of broiler chicken in terms of the interfaces of technological innovation, proposing sustainable alternatives. For the elaboration of this research, as methodology, it was based on the qualitative research approach. As for the objectives, these are classified as exploratory, descriptive and applied research. Regarding the procedures, field research was chosen. For the economic viability analysis, the techniques of Net Present Value (NPV), simple payback and discounted payback were used. As a result, the proposed photovoltaic energy installation project presented economic viability in the 18-year period for the simple payback and 19 years for the discounted payback. Since these are third-party resources (Pronaf Mais Alimentos), we opted to use the same rate applied by the Financial Institution (2.5%) as the Average Attractiveness Rate (TMA). The investment showed a Profitability Index (IL) of 17.11% during the project life and Internal Rate of Return (IRR) 3.76% per annum. The rainwater harvesting system presented economic viability in the 15-year period by simple payback and infeasibility for the 18-year period for the discounted payback, with an IRR of 4% per year and IL of (-29%). In this research, it was also identified that rainwater is of satisfactory quality for animal consumption and for human consumption. Regarding solid waste management, the property produces an average of 350 tons of poultry litter per 18 lots (2 years) and the packaging, booties, gloves and rodent poison remains totaled 1,960 kg in the analyzed period. When assessing the perception of the managers of the poultry integrators regarding sustainability and the implementation of "Sustainable Aviaries", it was identified that all managers of the companies questioned believe that Sustainable Aviaries are necessary and should be implemented in the long term. From the results presented, it is understood that rainwater harvesting system, photovoltaic power generation system and solid waste management are mechanisms that can contribute to reduce the environmental impacts caused by the poultry production process, promoting rural development sustainable development. / A avicultura possui uma atribuição relevante para o agronegócio no Brasil, quanto ao aspecto econômico e social. Porém, diante do elevado consumo de água e energia elétrica, e a alta geração de resíduos, torna-se agressora e poluidora do meio ambiente. Esta pesquisa tem por objetivo caracterizar aviário de frango de corte quanto às interfaces da inovação tecnológica, propondo alternativas sustentáveis. Para a elaboração desta pesquisa, como metodologia, baseou-se na abordagem de pesquisa qualitativa. Quanto aos objetivos, estes são classificados como pesquisa exploratória, descritiva e aplicada. Em relação aos procedimentos, optou-se pela pesquisa de campo. Para a análise da viabilidade econômica, utilizou-se as técnicas de Valor Presente Líquido (VPL), payback simples e payback descontado. Como resultado, o projeto proposto de instalação de energia fotovoltaica apresentou viabilidade econômica no período de 18 anos pelo payback simples e de 19 anos pelo payback descontado. Por se tratar de recursos de terceiros (Pronaf Mais Alimentos), optou-se por usar a mesma taxa aplicada pela Instituição Financeira (2,5%) como Taxa Média de Atratividade (TMA). O investimento apontou um Índice de Lucratividade (IL) de 17,11% durante a vida útil do projeto e Taxa Interna de Retorno (TIR) 3,76% ao ano. O sistema de captação da água de chuva apresentou viabilidade econômica no período de 15 anos pelo payback simples e inviabilidade para o período de 18 anos pelo payback descontado, com uma TIR de 4% ao ano e IL de (-29%). Nesta pesquisa, identificou-se também que a água de chuva possui qualidade satisfatória para dessedentação de animais e para o consumo humano. Em relação ao gerenciamento dos resíduos sólidos, a propriedade produz em média 350 toneladas de cama de aviário a cada 18 lotes (2 anos) e as embalagens, botinhas, luvas e restos de veneno para roedores somaram 1,960 kg, no período analisado. Ao avaliar a percepção dos gestores das integradoras avícolas quanto à sustentabilidade e quanto à implantação de “Aviários Sustentáveis”, identificou-se que todos os gestores das empresas questionadas acreditam que Aviários Sustentáveis são necessários e devem ser implantados em longo prazo. A partir dos resultados apresentados, entende-se que sistema de captação de água de chuva, sistema de geração de energia fotovoltaica e gerenciamento de resíduos sólidos são mecanismos que podem contribuir para reduzir os impactos ambientais, causados pelo processo produtivo avícola, promovendo o desenvolvimento rural sustentável.

<div>International development projects are a massive business, with billions invested annually in the Global South. However, such projects have an unacceptably long record of high failure rates. The problem perpetuates, in part, due to the success factors by which international development projects are judged. Often, projects are assessed on the basis of donor-identified priorities that are not aligned with local impacts. One such international development project involves the construction of small-scale water harvesting structures known as sand dams. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) continue to raise sufficient funds to build thousands of sand dams across sub-Saharan Africa, and yet 50% of sand dams are estimated to be non-functioning.</div><div><br></div><div>Sand dams are small, reinforced concrete dams built across an impermeable stream-bed. Over time, sand settles behind the dam, creating an upstream sand reservoir that fills with rainwater and surface runoff. The sand helps filter the water, protects it from evapotranspiration, and can provide water to the local community for domestic and agricultural use during the dry season. Sand dams often fail due to poor construction, inadequate siting, and siltation.</div><div><br></div><div>This dissertation explores methodologies for studying the regional and local impacts of sand dams and investigates the feasibility of developing model-based site selection guidelines for sand dams. Three objectives of this study are: (1) to develop a methodology to assess the ability of sand dams in improving the overall water availability in the region; (2) to examine claims made by non-scientific bodies about sand dam impacts by investigating how diverse sand dams influence macroinvertebrate habitat, vegetation, erosion, and local water availability; and (3) to create guidelines for siting new sand dams based on a fully integrated surface and groundwater flow model.</div><div><br></div><div>For the first objective, two multiple regression models are developed to compare (1) water storage and (2) vegetation in an area with a high density of sand dams, termed the sand dam counties (SDC), to those in a control area. The models analyze remotely sensed datasets to assess whether evidence exists of significantly increased storage in the SDC relative to the control area. The results show that the remotely sensed water storage data is unable to consistently detect higher levels of water storage in the SDC. This is likely due to the low resolution of the dataset combined with the small magnitude of sand dams' impact on regional water storage. The results of the vegetation model show that the sand dams have a consistent, positive impact on vegetation within the SDC relative to the control area. Because vegetation health and cover is often correlated with groundwater levels, these results likely indicate that the sand dams are also increasing local groundwater levels. Overall, this study shows that remotely sensed dataset can provide a useful basis to assess the impact of international development projects, particularly those that involve the natural environment. </div><div><br></div><div>For the second objective, data relating to macroinvertebrates, vegetation, erosion, and water table elevations at three sand dams were collected and analyzed during a year-long field study in Tanzania. These study subjects were specifically selected to test an NGO claim that sand dams revitalize the entire ecosystem. The results of this study show that sand dams are not a suitable habitat for macroinvertebrates due to their homogeneity. The impact of sand dams on vegetation cover can be significant, but may be limited by the slope of the surrounding land. Functioning sand dams likely have little impact on streambank erosion, but non-functioning sand dams may contribute to the erosion of streambanks in unstable reaches. Lastly, the water table is locally raised by recharge from sand dams, however, the spatial and temporal extent of the impact is more limited than conveyed by NGOs and previous studies. This study adds to the limited body of knowledge on the environmental responses to sand dams and demonstrates the importance of examining the local impacts of individual international development projects. </div><div><br></div><div>For the third objective, results from four different simulations of a watershed-based model with three cascading sand dams are analyzed to identify overland features that improve vadose zone storage and groundwater recharge and reduce evapotranspiration. Results from this study show that sand dams constructed in a low-lying area that collects surface runoff from adjacent steep slopes, such as in a U-shaped valley, will likely collect and store sufficient water for use by a local community. Watersheds with relatively more area cultivated with low-water-need crops will similarly be beneficial to sand dam performance. In addition, the analysis revealed that the volume of water a sand dam receives during a rainy season is less important for water storage than the duration of dry seasons. Lastly, the simulations showed that sand dams constructed in an area with sandier soils will perform better than those in an area with loamy soils. This study produced a set of guidelines that can be used to identify locations where sand dams are likely to capture and store sufficient water for community use during the dry season.</div>

South Africa, in common with many parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, is facing increasing water shortages. Limited available water arising from a low and poorly distributed rainfall, must supply domestic, agricultural, industrial and ecosystem needs. Agricultural activities of smallholder farmers, who largely occupy arid to semi-arid areas, are rainfall-driven as they do not have the capacity to develop conventional water sources, such as boreholes and large dams. This situation has led to persistent food shortages, low income and a lack of investments, resulting in high dependency levels of which examples include over reliance on social grants, household crop production that largely relies on external inputs and availability of cheap unskilled labour. A growing global perception that water for agriculture has low value relative to other value uses could further jeopardize the already over exploited agricultural water. Developing economies such as South Africa are likely to favour, in terms of water allocation, e.g. electricity generation through steam turbines relative to irrigation needs because industry plays a more significant role in the economy. While substantial scientific research has resulted in enhanced yields through in-situ water harvesting and soil and water conservation, as well as crop and soil fertility management and plant breeding, less work has been done to assess the impact of intermittent dry spells on crop yield, particularly with regard to smallholders. Indeed, the interventions that have been promoted to smallholders may provide little buffer against such events. In addition, the increase in yield from many such efforts has been marginal and inconsistent, leading some to conclude that semi-arid environments are hydrologically marginal, have no significant agricultural potential and any attempts to intensify agricultural activities would lead to severe environmental degradation. This study investigated the rainwater harvesting and storage potential among rainfed farmers in a summer-rainfall region of South Africa. The influences of this practice on soil hydraulic properties, water fluxes and crop production is detailed in subsequent chapters. Using historical meteorological data, this study commenced with an investigation of the factors that influence the length of maize (Zea Mays L.) growing seasons notably the prevalence of early season dry spells and late season low temperature which could be responsible for persistent low maize yields amongst smallholder rainfed farmers (Chapter 2). An increasing trend of dry spells was observed which was found to influence sowing dates and the length of the growing season. The influence of no-tillage (NT) as an intervention to secure more root-zone soil moisture was investigated in comparison to conventional tillage (CT) practices. Field experiments, with the aim of quantifying the extent to which water productivity and yields can be improved among smallholder rainfed farmers in the Potshini catchment, Thukela basin; South Africa (Chapter 8), were conducted during both the dry and growing seasons from 2005/06 – 2007/08 seasons at four sites with similar soil textural properties and slopes. Each site was developed as a runoff plot and was fitted with moisture and runoff measuring devices. Meteorological parameters were measured from a weather station installed nearby. A snapshot electrical resistivity survey was used to compliment soil moisture profiling. The analyses of the different measurements provided information on various water flow paths and potential downstream hydrological effects (Chapter 3). The average cumulative runoff was 7% and 9% of seasonal rainfall in NT and CT treatments over the three seasons. Changes over time in soil hydraulic properties due to tillage were examined at two depths through infiltration tests and determination of their bulk densities. These included changes in steady state infiltration rate and hydraulic conductivity (Chapter 4), interaction between soil infiltration and soil characteristics (Chapter 5) and water conducting porosity and water retention (Chapter 6). In 50% of the sites, NT treatments showed significantly higher hydraulic conductivity compared to CT treatments. In response to an unexploited opportunity identified to produce vegetables in winter, an assessment of the potential for runoff water harvesting systems using polyethylene lining as an alternative cost-effective construction method for underground rainwater storage systems, particularly in areas where groundwater levels fluctuate rapidly was undertaken (Chapter 7). The process from conceptualization through design, construction and utilization of the stored water is described and recommendations for the design and construction of such systems made. Finally, various case studies which highlight the potential impact of improved soil profile moisture storage, the additional benefits of water stored in tanks and recommendations for tailored policies to support household food and income generation are made (Chapter 8). / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

Big-box Urban Mixed-use Developments (BUMDs) are mixed-use developments with a consistent typology that incorporate big-box retailers in a central role. They are also becoming popular in the Atlanta region. While BUMDs serve an important economic role, they also cause issues with stormwater. This study explores integrating a on-site approach to stormwater management into the design of BUMDs. These new designs not only significantly lower the amount of stormwater run-off, but also have potential for better, more attractive, developments.

Water is precious, particularly in South Australia, the driest State in Australia, with over 80% of its land area receiving less than 250mm of rainfall per year. Security of water supply has always played a critical role in the economic and social development of South Australia, and will continue to do so while dependency on water from the River Murray is so high and there is competition over this from states and for different uses – municipal, irrigation, industry, and the environment. The drive towards sustainable development has evolved to attenuate overconsumption of the world’s natural resources of which water is a key element. Provision of reliable water supplies to regional South Australia has always presented challenges, given the vast distances involved and the limited number of natural water sources. Despite these, a majority of South Australians enjoy the benefit of a reliable and safe water supply, adequate waste disposal system, good community health and high standard of living. A challenge remains to determine the sustainability of current major water pipe transfer systems from remote resources to small communities. There may be scope for managing existing water supplies more effectively and further developing local water harvesting and reuse solutions to minimise the need for more significant infrastructure investment. This study investigates the challenges and opportunities for extending development of non-potable (secondary) water supply schemes in South Australian towns. These schemes will conserve the State’s freshwater resources. The primary focus of this study is harnessing stormwater runoff and treated effluent generated by normal township development to supplement higher quality public water for uses such as irrigation of public areas and sporting fields in country areas. Water harvesting and reuse is not likely to occur due to some technological breakthrough but through application of known technology and the adoption of water conscious ethics by society. However, it is a sensible reality for the South Australian climate, particularly when coupled with appropriate conservation and suitable landscaping practices. Thus, the major theme of this study is information sharing since if people are familiar with and understand the concepts then more communities may be encouraged to develop their resources. Water reuse has proven to be a beneficial strategy for addressing stormwater runoff and wastewater disposal problems and alleviating localised water supply problems for several South Australian towns and communities. The existing projects demonstrate both the strong community-based and innovative approach to water resources management in this state. They are inherently simple in form, and can often be assembled with readily available materials by people with a basic understanding of plumbing and construction skills (locally available). The potential for localised water harvesting and reuse in South Australian towns is generally limited to single purpose communal non-potable systems. Further, it is likely to only be sustainable in rural communities willing to make a commitment to its long term, proper operation and maintenance, or they could endanger public health. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1283773 / Thesis (M.Eng.Sc.) - University of Adelaide, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2007

Devido à falta de água em algumas regiões, o tema aproveitamento de águas pluviais vem se desenvolvendo ultimamente. Fica evidente a importância de sensibilizar as pessoas para que ajam de modo responsável e com consciência. A escola é um espaço de sensibilidade e conscientização que pode educar os alunos junto ao meio escolar e à comunidade local sobre o meio ambiente. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi o de realizar no Instituto de Aplicação Fernando Rodrigues da Silveira (CAp-UERJ) uma pesquisa de percepção ambiental com os alunos do 2 e 5 ano dos anos iniciais do Ensino Fundamental, a partir da conscientização pautada na educação ambiental após instalado o sistema de captação de águas pluviais, desenvolvida no projeto de Manejo de Águas Pluviais - MAPLU aprovado pelo FINEP, cujo objetivo é o desenvolvimento de soluções urbanísticas e ambientalmente adequadas de manejo de águas pluviais. Foram realizadas as oficinas com cada grupo focal e aplicados questionários para avaliar os resultados gerados. As oficinas demonstraram um avanço no conhecimento, pois a partir de uma abordagem participativa, os alunos puderam expressar os seus interesses e conhecimentos. Para quantificar o consumo de água no Instituto, foram levantadas informações relativas aos usuários, medições de vazões e faturas de consumos de água disponibilizados pela Companhia Estadual de Águas e Esgoto - CEDAE. Por meio de entrevistas com amostras de população, verificou-se a frequência e o tempo médio de utilização dos aparelhos, bem como as principais atividades que consomem água. Estimou-se o consumo médio diário de água no CAp-UERJ em 13 L/dia por aluno. / The rainwater harvesting is a topic that has been developing in recent years. It is evident the importance of sensitizing people to act responsibly and conscientiously so. The school is an area of sensitivity and awareness that can educate students on the school environment and the local community about the environment. The objective of this study was to perform at the Institute of Application Fernando Rodrigues da Silveira (CAp-UERJ) a survey of environmental awareness with students of the 2nd and 5th year of the early years of elementary school, from the awareness guided environmental education after installation of the rainwater harvesting system, developed in the project stormwater management - MAPLU approved by FINEP, whose goal is the development of urban and environmentally sound solutions for stormwater management. Workshops with each focus group and applied questionnaires were conducted to evaluate the results generated, as the workshops results showed an improvement in knowledge, because, from a participatory approach, the students were able to express their interests and expertise. In order to quantify water consumption information was raised to users of the institution, measurements of flow and water consumption provided by the State Company for Water and Sewer bills - CEDAE. Through interviews with samples of the population, there was the frequency and the average time of use of equipment, as well as the main activities that consume water. We estimated the average daily water consumption in CAp-UERJ of 13 L / day per student.

Devido à falta de água em algumas regiões, o tema aproveitamento de águas pluviais vem se desenvolvendo ultimamente. Fica evidente a importância de sensibilizar as pessoas para que ajam de modo responsável e com consciência. A escola é um espaço de sensibilidade e conscientização que pode educar os alunos junto ao meio escolar e à comunidade local sobre o meio ambiente. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi o de realizar no Instituto de Aplicação Fernando Rodrigues da Silveira (CAp-UERJ) uma pesquisa de percepção ambiental com os alunos do 2 e 5 ano dos anos iniciais do Ensino Fundamental, a partir da conscientização pautada na educação ambiental após instalado o sistema de captação de águas pluviais, desenvolvida no projeto de Manejo de Águas Pluviais - MAPLU aprovado pelo FINEP, cujo objetivo é o desenvolvimento de soluções urbanísticas e ambientalmente adequadas de manejo de águas pluviais. Foram realizadas as oficinas com cada grupo focal e aplicados questionários para avaliar os resultados gerados. As oficinas demonstraram um avanço no conhecimento, pois a partir de uma abordagem participativa, os alunos puderam expressar os seus interesses e conhecimentos. Para quantificar o consumo de água no Instituto, foram levantadas informações relativas aos usuários, medições de vazões e faturas de consumos de água disponibilizados pela Companhia Estadual de Águas e Esgoto - CEDAE. Por meio de entrevistas com amostras de população, verificou-se a frequência e o tempo médio de utilização dos aparelhos, bem como as principais atividades que consomem água. Estimou-se o consumo médio diário de água no CAp-UERJ em 13 L/dia por aluno. / The rainwater harvesting is a topic that has been developing in recent years. It is evident the importance of sensitizing people to act responsibly and conscientiously so. The school is an area of sensitivity and awareness that can educate students on the school environment and the local community about the environment. The objective of this study was to perform at the Institute of Application Fernando Rodrigues da Silveira (CAp-UERJ) a survey of environmental awareness with students of the 2nd and 5th year of the early years of elementary school, from the awareness guided environmental education after installation of the rainwater harvesting system, developed in the project stormwater management - MAPLU approved by FINEP, whose goal is the development of urban and environmentally sound solutions for stormwater management. Workshops with each focus group and applied questionnaires were conducted to evaluate the results generated, as the workshops results showed an improvement in knowledge, because, from a participatory approach, the students were able to express their interests and expertise. In order to quantify water consumption information was raised to users of the institution, measurements of flow and water consumption provided by the State Company for Water and Sewer bills - CEDAE. Through interviews with samples of the population, there was the frequency and the average time of use of equipment, as well as the main activities that consume water. We estimated the average daily water consumption in CAp-UERJ of 13 L / day per student.

No description available.

Infield rainwater harvesting (IRWH) technology has been used in arid and semi-arid parts of the world and promising results have been achieved in terms of increasing yield. The main aim of this study was to identify socio-economic factors determining the adoption of IRWH technology for enhancing household food security by smallholder farmers. The specific objectives were to assess the level of adoption of IRWH technology using descriptive statistics (mean, frequency and percentages). To determine socio-economic factors influencing adoption of IRWH technology, the binary logistic regression mode l was used. To determine whether adopters of IRWH technology are more food secure than non-adopters, the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) was used as a measure for household food security. For the same objective, to determine socio-economic factors that influence household food security, the binary logistic regression model was also used and adoption of IRWH technology became an independent variable. The study was conducted in Khayalethu, Guquka and Krwakrwa villages in Nkonkobe Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province (EC). The unit of analysis was the individual smallholder farmers practicing agriculture. The availability (accidental) and snowball sampling techniques were used to select 34, 23, 63 respondents from Khayalethu, Guquka and Krwakrwa villages respectively. Since they are non-random, these sampling methods are problematic because of sampling errors. Overall, a sample size of 120 smallholder farmers was targeted for the interviews. Primary and secondary data collected was coded and analysed using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 21. Results were presented using graphs, pie charts and tables (including cross-tables). The descriptive results showed that adoption status of IRWH technology was low in these areas, with 79% not adopting the technology. Food insecurity was high amongst the non-adopters with 86%. On the basis of descriptive analysis it can be concluded that any change in each one of the significant variables can significantly influence the probability of adopting IRWH technology and household food security. The results from the logistic regression model for the incidence of adoption revealed that 6 out of 16 variables were significant, three at 1% (access to extension services, access to information and farmers’ perception towards the IRWH technology); one at 5% (access to market) and two at 10% (access to hired labour and farm income). For the incidence of household food security, out of 17 variables, 6 were significant, three at 1% (adoption of the IRWH technology, access to extension services and farmers’ perception towards the IRWH technology); two at 5% (access to hired labour and household income) and one at 10% (household size). The empirical findings of this study indicate that there are socio-economic factors influencing adoption of IRWH technology and household food security amongst smallholder farmers. This study recommends that the government should provide extension officers and research stations with the capacity, support and physical means to expose smallholder farmers to the IRWH technology through demonstrations and trainings. The government can also introduce agricultural finance institutions in rural areas to assist the rural smallholder farmers to increase their access to credit. Further, it is recommended that smallholder farmers can expand to the communal croplands in order to gain more land size and work as a co-operative or as an association to ease labour constraints.

<p> Inclement challenges of a changing climate and humanity's desire to explore extraterrestrial environments both necessitate efficient methods to obtain freshwater. To accommodate next generation water technology, there is a need for understanding and defining the energy efficiency for unconventional water sources over a broad range of environments. Exergy analysis provides a common description for efficiency that may be used to evaluate technologies and water sources for energy feasibility. This work uses robust thermodynamic theory coupled with atmospheric and planetary data to define water capture efficiency, explore its variation across climate conditions, and identify technological niches and development needs.  </p> <p><br></p> <p> We find that desalinating saline liquid brines, even when highly saline, could be the most energetically favorable option for obtaining water outside of Earth. The energy required to access water vapor may be four to ten times higher than accessing ice deposits, however it offers the capacity for decentralized systems. Considering atmospheric water vapor harvesting on Earth, we find that the thermodynamic minimum is anywhere from 0x (RH≥ 100%) to upwards of 250x (RH<10\%) the minimum energy requirement of seawater desalination. Sorbents, modelled as metal organic frameworks (MOFs), have a particular niche in arid and semi-arid regions (20-30%). Membrane-systems are best at low relative humidity and the region of applicability is strongly affected by the vacuum pumping efficiency. Dew harvesting is best at higher humidity and fog harvesting is optimal when super-saturated conditions exist. Component (e.g., pump, chiller, etc.) inefficiencies are the largest barrier in increasing process-level efficiency and strongly impact the regions optimal technology deployment. The analysis elucidates a fundamental basis for comparing water systems energy efficiency for outer space applications and provides the first thermodynamics-based comparison of classes of atmospheric water harvesting technologies on Earth.</p>