Magnetic particles have attracted increasing attention in fields ranging from separation processes to electromagnetic information storage an medical application. Various approaches for their synthesis have been developed and studied to satisfy the criteria of production. Improvement and optimization of size, stability, and functionality is of vital importance in biological applications. The main aspect of project, initially, was to study the application of aqueous functionalized magnetic nanoparticles coupled with high gradient magnetic separation technique for the removal of trace residue of organic contaminants from drinking water. However, the importance of synthesizing stable ferrofluid for this purpose became clear later and took precedence over the initial objective. Different approaches were adopted, such as the incorporation of poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate, ethylenediamine, and chitosan, to enhance the stability of magnetic particles. However, these surface modifications had unfavorable effect on the stability of initial particles. In accord with the initial objective of the project, the possibility of utilization of β-cyclodextrin, as organic pollutant entrapment agent, was investigated in preliminary studies conducted on its interaction with a model compound, procaine hydrochloride. The outcomes of these experiments suggest its potential as a biocompatible removal agent for the elimination of organic pollutant in drinking water system, or other applications that require selective separation of organic compounds.

Antibiotics are a group of compounds used in large quantities for both human therapy and animal food production. In recent years, antibiotics have been detected at low levels (up to μg/L) in wastewater effluents and surface waters in the US, Canada, and parts of Europe. The presence of such contaminants in the environment is of concern due to their potential to promote bacterial resistance as well as to trigger long-term adverse human health effects. Chemical disinfection, one of essential water treatment processes, may aid in their removal but may also form byproducts that can remain biologically active. Nanofiltration is another water treatment process that may provide an effective physical barrier for these contaminants. The goal of this study was to understand the effect chlorination and nanofiltration processes have on the fate of select antibiotics during water treatment, especially under varying water quality conditions. Changes in pH were found to significantly influence the reaction rate of one veterinary antibiotic, carbadox, with aqueous chlorine while also influencing the byproducts formed. The pH was also found to significantly alter the removal efficiency of several antibiotics by different nanofiltration membranes of varying pore size in which dependence was mechanistically investigated using transport models. In addition, the presence of tertiary amines was found to enhance transformation of antibiotics during chlorination. Overall, fundamental understanding regarding their fate during such water treatment processes will help industries develop better strategies for effectively controlling this emerging group of contaminants.

The monitoring of water distribution systems (WDSs) has been a very popular subject of study since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and the subsequent passing of laws motivating the study of WDS monitoring to provide system protection in the event of a terrorist attack. Inhibiting many WDS monitoring studies to date is the large amount of computational expense required to conduct meaningful studies, especially for larger WDSs that are of most interest. In this study, methods were developed to determine the "importance" of WDS nodes in being considered as locations for sensors used to monitor a WDS in order to make sensor placement optimization more efficient. Single-objective protection goals considered individually in optimization were maximizing detection likelihood, minimizing expected detection time, and minimizing expected contaminated demand volume. A multiobjective protection goal accounting for all three single-objective goals concurrently was also considered; the formulation of the multiobjective optimization problem was intended to minimize tradeoffs among individual protection goals. Sensor placement optimization was carried out with the Iterative Subset Search Method (ISSM) employing genetic algorithms developed in this work; ISSM used nodal importance rankings to search a small subset of nodes for the optimal solution initially then broadened the search incrementally until convergence to a best solution occurred. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the methods developed, sensor placement was performed according to each of the protection goals for three study systems--one small and two large--and a variety of attack conditions. Desirable sensor node solutions that provided for significant protection were found in all cases, and in many cases sensor placement results were comparable to or better than those of other works. Nodal importance narrowed the search for optimal sensor nodes to a relatively small proportion of WDS nodes in most cases.

Water supply systems aim, among other objectives, to protect public health by reducing the concentration of, and potentially eliminating, microorganisms pathogenic to human beings. Yet, because water supply systems are engineered systems facing variable conditions, such as raw water quality or treatment process performance, the quality of the drinking water produced also exhibits variability. The reliability of a treatment system is defined in this context as the probability of producing drinking water that complies with existing microbial quality standards. This thesis examines the concept of reliability for two physicochemical treatment technologies, conventional rapid granular filtration and ultrafiltration, used to remove the protozoan pathogen Cryptosporidium parvum from drinking water. First, fault tree analysis is used as a method of identifying technical hazards related to the operation of these two technologies and to propose ways of minimizing the probability of failure of the systems. This method is used to compile operators’ knowledge into a single logical diagram and allows the identification of important processes which require efficient monitoring and maintenance practices. Second, an existing quantitative microbial risk assessment model is extended to be used in a reliability analysis. The extended model is used to quantify the reliability of the ultrafiltration system, for which performance is based on full-scale operational data, and to compare it with the reliability of rapid granular filtration systems, for which performance is based on previously published data. This method allows for a sound comparison of the reliability of the two technologies. Several issues remain to be addressed regarding the approaches used to quantify the different input variables of the model. The approaches proposed herein can be applied to other water treatment technologies, to aid in prioritizing interventions to improve system reliability at the operational level, and to determine the data needs for further refinements of the estimates of important variables.

Magnetic photocatalysts were synthesised by coating a magnetic core with a layer of photoactive titanium dioxide. This magnetic photocatalyst is for use in slurry-type reactors in which the catalyst can be easily recovered by the application of an external magnetic field. The first attempt at producing this magnetic photocatalyst involved the direct deposition of titanium dioxide onto the surface of magnetic iron oxide particles. The photoactivity of these Fe3O4/TiO2 was lower than that of single-phase TiO2 and was found to decrease with an increase in the heat treatment. These observations were explained in terms of an unfavourable heterojunction between the titanium dioxide and the iron oxide core. Fe ion diffusion from the iron oxide core into the titanium dioxide matrix upon heat treatment, leading to a highly doped TiO2 lattice, was also contributing to the observed low activities of these samples. These Fe3O4/TiO2 particles were found to be unstable, with photodissolution of the iron oxide phase being encountered. This photodissolution was dependent on the heat treatment applied, the greater the extent of the heat treatment, the lower the incidence of photodissolution. This was explained in terms of the stability of the iron oxide phases present, as well as the lower photoactivity of the titanium dioxide matrix. In fact, the observed photodissolution was found to be induced-photodissolution. That is, the photogenerated electrons in the titanium dioxide phase were being injected into the lower lying conduction band of the iron oxide core, leading to its reduction and then dissolution. Thus, the approach of directly depositing TiO2 onto the surface of a magnetic iron oxide core proved ineffective in producing a stable magnetic photocatalyst. The introduction of an intermediate passive SiO2 layer between the titanium dioxide phase and the iron oxide phase inhibited the direct electrical contact and hence prevented the photodissolution of the iron oxide phase. Improvements in the photoactivity were seen to be due to the inhibition of both the electronic and chemical interactions between the iron oxide and titanium dioxide phases. Preliminary optimisation experiments revealed that a thin SiO2 layer is sufficient for inhibiting the photodissolution. The thickness of the TiO2 coating was found not to have a significant effect on the photocatalytic performance of the coated particles. Finally, heat treating for 20 minutes at 450??C was sufficient for converting the titanium dioxide into a photoactive phase, longer heating times had no beneficial effect on the photoactivity.

Thesis (PhD.(Medical Virology)--Faculty of Health Sciences)-University of Pretoria, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Flinders University, School of Medicine, Dept. of Environmental Health. / Typescript bound. Includes bibliographical references: (leaves 650-698) Also available online.

Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.) - University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009. / Full text also available online. Scroll down for electronic link.

<p>Although wood floor production does not use water in the production process, water consumptionis related to cleaning and washing of floor and machineries in different steps of the process line,which generate a number of small flows that are highly polluted.Besides this, the industry has a need to store large amounts of wood outside to be able to havecontinuity in the production. This takes up a lot of space outdoors and once it rains the water thathas been in contact with wood, oil and metals forms stormwater, which transports pollutants.Stormwater has for a long time not been seen as a problem and has often been discharged intorecipient water bodies without any treatment. During cold seasons, this also involves snowmelt thatcan transport high concentrations of different pollutants.This report describes the composition of process- and stormwater from a wood floor industry inNybro, Sweden regarding parameters such as COD, phenol, tannin and lignin. The concentrationsof phenols in the stormwater were found in a range considered toxic to marine life.Regarding the process water, high values was found for COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) and forother substances and elements potentially toxic (e.g. formaldehyde, wood resins, detergents andmetals). If these waters are directly released to a sewage treatment plant without any pre-treatmentprocess it can disturb the plant treatment efficiency; if released to a recipient water body, it cancause oxygen deficiency and consequently, death to marine life.The possibility of reducing the levels of pollutants through the use of electrocoagulation has beenexamined in this study. This has been done both for process water and stormwater from the woodfloor industry. A 250 ml batch unit for electrocoagulation EC was setup with iron (Fe) andaluminium (Al) electrodes for treating process water and stormwater. The results show that the ECprocess can reduce COD concentration from stormwater at least 70%. On the other hand, lessefficiency of EC for treating process water was observed.A method for simulating a snowmelt period in lab scale was also developed. Snow collected from awood floor industry was melted according to real temperature and the quality of these samples hasthen been compared to on-site samples of stormwater</p> / Development of an integrated approach for industrial wastewater and stormwater management in the wood-industry sector

Στην παρούσα μελέτη εξετάζεται η δυνατότητα επαναχρησιμοποίησης των επεξεργασμένων αστικών λυμάτων και ιλύος από Εγκαταστάσεις Επεξεργασίας Λυμάτων του νομού Αιτωλ/νίας σε γεωργικές εκτάσεις του νομού. Στο πρώτο μέρος της εργασίας γίνεται μια εισαγωγή στην επαναχρησιμοποίηση των αστικών λυμάτων στην γεωργία. Περιγράφονται τα χαρακτηριστικά των λυμάτων, οι διεργασίες που συντελούνται στις Εγκαταστάσεις Επεξεργασίας Λυμάτων, τα κριτήρια ποιότητας που πρέπει να πληρούν τα λύματα (προκειμένου να χρησιμοποιηθούν για άρδευση). Αναλύονται τα αγρονομικά κριτήρια και τα κριτήρια για την διασφάλιση της δημόσιας υγείας, που πρέπει να τηρούν τα επεξεργασμένα λύματα, ώστε να εφαρμόζονται στα εδάφη με ασφάλεια. Επίσης, στο πρώτο μέρος αναλύονται τα κριτήρια επιλογής θέσεων για την εφαρμογή των λυμάτων, καθώς και το νομοθετικό πλαίσιο που ισχύει στην Ελλάδα σχετικά με την επαναχρησιμοποίηση. Τέλος, γίνεται μια επισκόπηση της διεθνούς πρακτικής σχετικά με την επαναχρησιμοποίηση και περιγράφεται και η κατάσταση που επικρατεί στον Ελλαδικό χώρο. Στο δεύτερο μέρος γίνεται αναφορά στους υδατικούς πόρους του νομού Αιτωλ/νίας. Περιγράφεται το υδατικό δυναμικό του νομού Αιτωλ/νίας, οι ανάγκες νερού για διάφορες χρήσεις στον νομό, καθώς και οι υποδομές δικτύων άρδευσης σην Αιτωλ/νία. Το τρίτο μέρος αναφέρεται στην χρήση της ιλύος στην γεωργία. Γίνεται περιγραφή των χαρακτηριστικών της λυματολάσπης, του νομικού πλαισίου που ισχύει κατά την χρήση της στην γεωργία και τονίζονται τα κρίσιμα σημεία ελέγχου κατά την εφαρμογή της λάσπης στα γεωργικά εδάφη. Στο τέταρτο μέρος γίνεται η οριοθέτηση και η περιγραφή των περιοχών μελέτης και παρουσιάζεται ο τρόπος, με τον οποίο προσδιορίζονται οι καλλιεργούμενες εκτάσεις μέσα σε κάθε περιοχή μελέτης, ώστε στην συνέχεια να εκτιμηθούν οι υδατικές απαιτήσεις. Οι Εγκαταστάσεις Επεξεργασίας Αστικών Λυμάτων, που εξετάζονται στην παρούσα μελέτη, είναι αυτές των Δήμων Μεσολογγίου, Αιτωλικού, Θέρμου, Αγρινίου και Ναυπάκτου. Ενώ οι επιλεγείσες περιοχές μελέτης βρίσκονται πλησίον των ανωτέρω εγκαταστάσεων. Γίνεται επίσης σύντομη αναφορά στον τρόπο λειτουργίας της κάθε ΕΕΛ. Στο πέμπτο μέρος γίνεται αναφορά στους παράγοντες που επηρεάζουν την υδατοκατανάλωση των καλλιεργειών, αναλύεται η μεθοδολογία με την βοήθεια της οποίας προσδιορίζονται οι υδατικές απαιτήσεις των καλλιεργειών σύμφωνα με την εξίσωση των Penman Monteith κατά FAO. Προσδιορίζονται οι υδατικές απαιτήσεις των καλλιεργειών και οι συνολικές ανάγκες σε αρδευτικό νερό για κάθε περιοχή μελέτης, ακολουθεί η συσχετισή του με τις ετήσιες εκροές της κάθε ΕΕΛ, ώστε να προκύψει το ποσοστό κάλυψης των αρδευτικών αναγκών με επεξεργασμένες εκροές για την κάθε περιοχή. Τέλος, στο έκτο μέρος γίνεται μια προσπάθεια εκτίμησης της δυνατότητας χρήσης της λυματολάσπης στα εδάφη του νομού Αιτωλ/νίας. / This study examines the potential reuse of treated municipal wastewater and sludge from Waste Water Treatment Plants (WWTPs) in agricultural areas of Aitoloakarnania prefecture. The first part of the study is an introduction to the reuse of urban wastewater in agriculture. Describes the characteristics of wastewater, the processes occurring in the wastewater treatment plants, the quality criteria that wastewater should have for safe use in irrigation. Also, the first part analyzes the criteria for selecting areas to apply wastewater. The legislative framework in Greece for waste water reuse is also analyzed. Finally, a review of international and domestic practices on agricultural reuse is given. The second part refers to the water resources of the Aitoloakarnania prefecture. The third part refers to the use of sludge in agriculture. Describes the characteristics of the sludge, the legal framework applicable for use in agriculture and highlights the critical control points in the application of sludge on soils. The fourth part describes each study area and shows how we can specify in each area the cultivated species (crops) in order to calculate the water requirements of the crops. The study areas are sited near by the WWTPs of Messolongi, Aitoliko, Thermo, Agrinio, Naupaktos. The fifth part refers to the factors affecting water requirements of the crops, and analyzes the methodology used to calculate water requirements of crops (FAO Penman – Monteith equation). At the end of the part there is a correlation between the water requirements of the crops and the annual output of each WWTP, resulting in the percentage of coverage of irrigation demands of crops in each studied area. Finally, the sixth part is an attempt to assess the usability of sludge to soils of the Aitoloakarnania prefecture.