When measuring weathering intensity of paleosols there arevarious methods and ratios that can be used. This studyexamines several weathering indicators too see which are bestapplied and most effective on loess and paleosols from Yukon,Canada. This region today is considered sub-arctic, but duringpast time this area and its soils has been characterized byglaciations and interglaciations. These changes are the origin ofthe unweathered Kluane loess and the weathered Slims Soilthat are analyzed in the study. Methods used to determine themost sensitive weathering indicator was; CIA (the ChemicalIndex of Alteration), CPA (the Chemical Proxy of Alteration),oxide ratios ((CaO + Na2O + MgO)/TiO2 and (CaO + Na2O +K2O)/TiO2), and elemental ratios (Rb/Sr, Ba/Sr, Ti/Sr). Theresults from the CIA and oxide ratios show that calcium is thevarying factor, and thereby a good weathering indicator forthese samples. The elemental ratios showed a great variationbetween weathered and unweathered samples, and a cleardecrease strontium is apparent. These ratios would also beuseful indicators, but since Sr is associated with Ca, it isprobably calcium that is the main feature. The methods withoutcalcium as a factor did not give any clear separation betweenKluane loess and Slims Soil. Thereby it is concluded that proxyscontaining Ca are the most useful indicators of weathering inthis area.

Lors de ce travail de thèse, la combinaison des méthodes de la géochimie analytique et isotopique avec les approches modélisatrices a permis d’apporter de nouvelles connaissances à la compréhension de la zone critique et du régolithe. Pour l’étude du régolithe, ce travail présente une méthodologie permettant de réaliser sur un même profil d’altération les analyses de la géochimie élémentaire, de la minéralogie, ainsi que des isotopes de la série de l’uranium (U-Th-Ra) et de l’isotope cosmogénique du 10Be in situ. Les résultats obtenus montrent l’importance de la bonne résolution spatiale de l’échantillonnage pour pouvoir pleinement exploiter les outils de la série U-Th-Ra et du 10Be in situ, notamment pour déterminer d’une manière indépendante les paramètres clés que sont les taux de production et de dénudation du régolithe à long terme. Les deux profils d’altération réalisés dans cette étude montrent de plus que (1) la structure du régolithe est relativement simple sur les positions sommitales et permet une interprétation continue des données géochimiques et minéralogiques et (2) les processus de pente tendent à augmenter l’hétérogénéité spatiale du régolithe et des processus d’altération. D’une façon complémentaire, le suivi et la modélisation hydrogéochimique des eaux de surface permettent d’étudier les processus d’altération actuels, et de comprendre les mécanismes impliqués dans leurs variabilités récentes. Ce travail a notamment montré le lien pouvant exister entre les modifications enregistrées en surface dans les solutions de sol et l’évolution temporelle des certaines propriétés chimiques des eaux de source (pH, concentration en calcium). Les simulations réalisées ont également permis de comprendre la faible variabilité des flux d’altération globaux exportés par les sources, en relation avec la relative stabilité des concentrations de sodium et de silice dissoute sur la période récente allant de 1990 à 2010. Cette étude a finalement montré l’importance du couplage des méthodes apportant des informations sur les processus d’altération et d’érosion à différentes échelles de temps et d’espace, en particulier pour évaluer correctement la dynamique du régolithe et pour replacer le fonctionnement actuel d’un bassin versant vis-à-vis de son évolution à long terme. / In this PhD work, the combination of the geochemical analytic and isotopic approaches with the modeling approaches has allowed to bring new insights to the understanding of the critical zone and the regolith. Concerning the regolith, this work presents a methodology to perform the analyses of the elemental geochemistry, of the mineralogy, as well as of the U-Th-Ra isotopes and of the in situ 10Be cosmogenic isotope along a single weathering profile. The obtained results highlight the importance of the sampling spatial resolution for an exhaustive interpretation of the U-Th-Ra and of the in situ 10Be data, especially to independently determine the key parameters of the long term regolith production and denudation rates. The two weathering profiles realized in this study furthermore show that (1) the regolith structure is relatively simple on ridge-tops and allows a continuous interpretation of the geochemical and of the mineralogical data and (2) the slope processes tend to increase the spatial heterogeneity of the regolith and of the weathering processes. In addition, the monitoring and the modeling of the surface waters allow to investigate the current weathering processes, and to understand the mechanisms involved in their recent variability. This work shows the relationship that can exist between the modifications recorded at the surface in the soil solutions and the temporal evolution of some chemical properties of the spring waters (pH, calcium concentration). The simulations also allow to understand the weak variability of the global weathering fluxes exported by the springs, in relation with the relative stability of the sodium and of the dissolved silica concentrations over the period 1990-2010. This study also demonstrates the interest of the coupling of methods providing information on the weathering and the erosion processes at different time and space scales, in particular to correctly evaluate the regolith dynamic and to position the present-day functioning of a watershed with respect to its long term evolution.

Abstract The mineralogy and geochemistry of the fine and clay fractions of till in different moraine types and in different bedrock areas in northern Finland have been studied. A total of 250 till samples from 140 test pits were studied mineralogically and geochemically. X-ray diffraction, differential thermal and thermogravimetric analyses, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray fluorescence and atomic absorption spectrometry were used as analytical methods. In the clay fraction of till quartz, plagioclase, microcline and amphibole are the primary minerals occurring. The clay minerals proper include vermiculite, chlorite, illite, swelling-lattice vermiculite and mixed-layer clay minerals. Kaolinite occurs most abundantly in the clay fractions of till in the Kittilä, Jerisjärvi, Kaaresuvanto and Pulju areas. In the clay fraction of Kittilä and Jerisjärvi illite is dioctahedral type, but in their of other study areas both di- and trioctahedral types occur. Kaolinite and dioctahedral illite are evidence of the mixing of the weathered bedrock material into the till matrix. In the fine fraction of till most abundant minerals are primary minerals and clayminerals are in a minor role. In the clay fraction of till the content of primary minerals are at higher and secondary minerals are at lower level in the Granitic and Archaean gneiss areas than in the Greenstone Belt, Svecokarelian schists and gneiss and Granulite areas. Amphibole, microcline and plagioclase occur in very low amounts or are totally destroyed by chemical weathering in the clay fraction of the till in the Kittilä area. The mineral composition of fine and clay fractions in the tills of northern Inari gives an indication that there occur much more mafic volcanites than is known today. The mineralogical compositions of fine fraction of the tills correlates quite well with the underlying bedrock in all study areas, but clay fraction does not. Geochemical results are in accordance with the mineralogical composition of both fractions. In the fine fraction of the till Si, Ca and Na contents are higher than in the clay fraction. Clay fraction is enriched in Al, Fe, Mg, K and trace elements as compared to the fine fraction. Present study material points out that the distribution of chemical elements in the clay fraction of the till does not correlate with the composition of the underlying bedrock, but fine fraction does so with a few exceptions. The chemical composition of till in Kaaresuvanto and Inari does not fully correspond to the composition of the underlying bedrock as known today. In northern Inari and Kittilä the results give an indication that there are more mafic volcanites and/or sulphide mineralizations occurring in these areas than is known at the present time. The most important factors controlling the mineralogical and geochemical composition of the fine and clay fractions of the tills in northern Finland are the composition of the bedrock and the possible occurrence of an old weathering crust. The final grain size composition of the tills and consequently the quantitative proportions of the different minerals are often related to the last glacial quarrying and sorting processes; therefore the mineralogical composition of the tills is to a certain extent bound also to the respective moraine type.

L'évolution des paysages est au coeur d'un système complexe d'interactions entre les phénomènes tectoniques, climatiques et érosifs. Si le contrôle principal du climat sur les taux d'érosion est encore sujet à débat, les régions montagneuses restent un milieu particulièrement sensible aux modifications climatiques. Pour mieux appréhender ces liens en milieu montagneux et le contrôle des processus d'érosion, il est nécessaire de comprendre et de quantifier l'importance de chaque phénomène érosif dans l'évolution des paysages. Parmi ceux-ci, les glissements de terrain sont un phénomène brusque, imprévisible et souvent catastrophique pouvant mobiliser des volumes rocheux considérables. De nombreux travaux suggèrent d'ailleurs que les glissements constituent le principal agent de l'érosion des pentes dans les vallées non englacées de l'Himalaya. L'objectif de cette thèse est de mieux appréhender l'évolution et la dynamique des glissements de terrain de l'Himalaya central et leur rôle dans l'érosion de cette chaîne de montagnes, sur une large échelle de temps. Ces travaux ont été menés selon 3 axes principaux imbriqués spatialement et temporellement. Le bassin de la Khudi Khola, au Népal central, présente un large glissement de terrain, actif depuis plusieurs décennies. Cette particularité nous a permis d'étudier en détail ce glissement, dans un contexte d'érosion intense, au jour le jour, à l'échelle d'une mousson et sur plusieurs décennies. L'histoire du glissement de Saituti a été reconstituée grâce à l'analyse d'images satellite et aériennes. Une activité continue, bien que variable, du glissement depuis près d'un demi siècle a pu être observée. L'estimation des volumes de sédiments produits par le glissement a permis de mettre en évidence la place prépondérante de cette structure érosive dans l'érosion totale du bassin au cours des dernières années, voire des dernières décennies. La dynamique quotidienne des mouvements au sein du glissement associée à l'export des sédiments par le réseau de drainage ont également été observés. Il apparaît un découplage entre les mouvements de terrain, donc la production de sédiments, qui sont contrôlés par le niveau de nappe, et l'export du matériel par la rivière, dépendant du débit de surface. Une fois initiés, les mouvements se poursuivent durant toute la période de mousson, mais seuls les épisodes pluvieux importants permettent un transport efficace du matériel produit à la rivière. Les flux annuels de matière en suspension dans la rivière ont également pu être estimés et s'accordent au premier ordre avec les volumes créés par le glissement. Ces résultats suggèrent également le rôle principal du glissement de Saituti dans l'érosion de la vallée. A l'échelle de l'Himalaya central, l'activité des glissements au cours de la dernière décennie témoigne d'une domination de l'érosion par des événements majeurs, de l'ordre de plusieurs millions de mètres cubes, similaires à celui de Saituti. Cette étude montre qu'à moyen terme, de tels glissements peuvent influencer très fortement les concentrations en isotopes cosmogéniques des sables de rivières dans les bassins versants de taille intermédiaire (quelques centaines de km2). La concentration de ces sables apparaît principalement dépendante de la date et de l'amplitude du dernier événement majeur de glissement. Dans ces environnements, les taux de dénudation déterminés par l'utilisation des isotopes cosmogéniques doivent être interprétés avec beaucoup de précaution. Ainsi, l'activité, possiblement continue, de quelques glissements de terrain peut exercer une influence majeure sur l'érosion des vallées de l'Himalaya central. Ce facteur doit être pris en compte dans l'analyse des processus érosifs ainsi que dans les modèles d'évolution des paysages, à court et moyen terme / Landscape evolution is at the heart of a complex system of interactions between tectonics, climate and erosion. While the influence of climate on erosion rates is still debated, mountainous areas are a priori particularly sensitive to climatic changes. In order to better understand these interactions, it is of fundamental importance to quantify the importance of each erosion process, in addition to their sensitivity to rainfall. Among the erosion processes, landslides represent a major, unpredictable and often catastrophic, phenomenon that can involve considerable volumes of rocks. Many previous works have shown that landslides are the primary agent of hillslope erosion in the unglaciated valleys of the Himalayas. From this point of view, the aim of this work is to better constrain landslide evolution and dynamics in the central Himalayas, and their role in the erosion of this mountain range, on different timescales. The Khudi Khola catchment, in central Nepal, displays a large landsliding zone that has been active for several decades, in a context of intense erosion. This characteristic provides the opportunity to study this landslide in detail, from timescales ranging from an hour to several decades. The Saituti landslide history was reconstructed from analysis of satellite and aerial images. A continuous, but variable, activity of the landslide has been observed for almost a half century. Estimates of sediment volumes produced by the landslide highlight the dominant role this erosive structure plays in the overall catchment erosion over the last few years and possibly for the past few decades. Indeed, the landslide-induced erosion rates are in the same range as the total erosion rates, i.e. around 2.5 mm/y. The daily dynamics of the landslide were also studied, as well as the sediment export to the drainage network. The results highlight a decoupling between the displacements and the sediment production within the landslide, and the export of sediment to the river. The baseflow level primarily controls these displacements, while the export is more dependant on the runoff discharge that follows rainfall peaks. Once the slide is set in motion, it keeps moving during the whole monsoon period. However, only intense rainfall events result in an efficient transport of sediment to the river. The annual flux of suspended load were estimated at the Khudi mouth, these roughly agree with the volumes of landslide material. These results confirm the dominant role of the Saituti landslide in the overall catchment erosion and suggest rapid export of the landslide sediment to the river mouth. On the scale of the entire central Himalayas, landslide activity over the last decade highlights a deficit of landslides, compared to independent estimates of secular denudation rates. Nevertheless, this activity is dominated by major events, in the range of several millions cubic metres, such as the Saituti one. The stochastic nature of landslides influences the variability of sediment fluxes in the river. However, this study also highlights that, in medium-sized catchments (around a few hundred square kilometres) such landslides may strongly influence the median concentration of cosmogenic nuclides in river sands. This concentration seems to be primarily dependant on the date and on the magnitude of the last major slide event. In such environments, secular denudation rates estimated from cosmogenic nuclides need to be interpreted very cautiously. The (possibly) long-lasting activity of a few large landslides can then strongly influence the erosion of the Himalayan valleys. This parameter should be taken into account in studies of short- to mid-tem erosion processes as well as in landscape evolution models generally.

Grains on the surfaces of airless bodies are continually being modified due to their exposure to interplanetary space, a phenomenon known as space weathering. This dissertation uses a multi-faceted approach to understanding space weathering of the lunar and asteroidal surfaces. Chapters 1 and 2 provide an introduction to space weathering and a discussion of the methods employed in this work, respectively. Chapter 3 focuses on the analysis of returned samples from near-Earth asteroid Itokawa using the transmission electron microscope (TEM) and contributes to the first-ever comparison of microstructural and chemical features of space weathering in returned samples from two different airless bodies. This research uses high-resolution imaging and quantitative energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) measurements to analyze space weathering characteristics in an Itokawa soil grain. These analyses confirm that space weathering is operating on the surface of Itokawa, and that many of the resulting features have similarities to those observed in lunar soils. Results show that while there is evidence that both major constituent space weathering processes are operating on the surface of Itokawa, solar wind irradiation, not micrometeorite impacts, appears to be the dominant contributor to changes in the microstructure and chemistry of surface material. Chapter 4 presents a detailed study of nanophase Fe (npFe) particles in lunar soil samples. For the first-time, the oxidation state of individual npFe particles was directly measured using electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS) in the TEM. The results show that npFe particles are oxidizing over their time on the lunar surface, and that the amount of oxidized Fe in the nanoparticles is correlated with soil maturity. The EELS data are also coupled to atomic-resolution imaging, which is used to determine the structure of the nanoparticles, confirming their mineral phase. This work challenges the long-standing paradigm that all npFe particles are composed of metallic Fe and that the chemical composition of these features remains static after their formation. A theoretical modeling investigation of the influence that npFe particles of different oxidation states have on the spectral properties of the material is also presented. The model results show that varied Fe-oxidation states of the nanoparticles can produce subtle changes in the optical properties of the soils, including the degree of reddening and the attenuation of characteristic absorption bands. These findings should be accounted for in future modeling of reflectance spectra. Chapter 5 presents a novel technique for simulating space weathering processes inside the TEM. Using an in situ heating holder, lunar soils were subjected to both slow- (~minutes) and rapid-heating (<seconds) events to simulate micrometeorite impacts. The slow-heating experiments show that npFe forms at ~575 ºC, providing a temperature constraint on initial npFe formation. Lunar soil grains that were subjected to a single, rapid, thermal pulse show the development of npFe particles and vesiculated textures near the grain rim. The vesicles were imaged and the npFe particles were imaged and then mapped with EDS. The oxidation state of the npFe particles was confirmed to be Fe^0 using EELS. Several lunar soil grains were subjected to multiple thermal shocks to simulate longer exposure times on the lunar surface. With each heating cycle, the number and size distribution of the npFe particles changed. The average size of npFe particles increased, and the size distribution became more gaussian after multiple heating events, versus the asymmetric distribution present after only one heating event. These results provide insight into the particle growth dynamics for space weathered soils and could offer a new way to place relative age constraints on grains in lunar soil.Chapter 6 provides a summary of the work presented here, discusses its implications for understanding space weathering processes across the solar system, and presents a perspective on the future of space weathering studies.

Loess from west Greenland was studied to evaluate Holocene paleoclimate in the Arctic region. Deposits of loess are formed over long time scales through deposition of fine aeolian sediment and they exist in several places in the world. The main aeolian dust source in the study area is glaciofluvial material derived from the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS). Studying and understanding paleoclimate can help to make better predictions about the future in this sensitive region. Apart from sea level rise, melting of the GrIS also leads to an increase of aeolian dust as it gets released from the ice, which influences atmospheric and metrological phenomenon as well as the ice sheet’s albedo. This creates negative feedback mechanisms through increasing melting rates of glaciers and warming of the Arctic. Loess samples from two sites in the Kangerlussuaq area were analyzed and the mineral composition was measured with X-Ray Florescence Spectroscopy (XRF). With the measured mineral content, weathering indices were calculated to identify rates of weathering during the Holocene. Increased weathering intensities indicate warmer and more humid climate. The deposits in Greenland are relatively thin. Radiocarbon dating of the sediment suggests that the oldest parts of the profiles are about 4000 cal. yr B.P. (calibrated years before present). Arctic loess has not been studied very extensively. Weathering indices and ratios developed for classical loess, that had not been tested on Arctic loess, was used. The results were plotted by depth and age to visually identify changes over time. By considering the geology, climate and local conditions of the study area, some weathering indices seemed to be suitable, generating matching trends between the two sites. Compared with results from previous studies, the results also seemed credible. / Löss från västra Grönland studerades för att utvärdera holocent paleoklimat i Arktis. Lössjordar bildas över långa tidsskalor genom avsättning av fint vindburet sediment och de finns på flera platser i världen. Den huvudsakliga källan till det vindburna sedimentet i studieområdet är glaciofluvialt material härstammande från Grönlandsisen (GrIS). Att studera och förstå paleoklimat kan underlätta skapandet av bättre prognoser om framtiden i denna känsliga region. Bortsett från höjning av de globala havsnivåerna leder smältningen av GrIS också till en ökning av vindburet sediment då det frigörs från isen, vilket påverkar atmosfäriska och metrologiska fenomen samt isens albedo. Detta skapar negativa återkopplingsmekanismer genom ökande smälthastighet av glaciärer och uppvärmning av Arktis. Lössprover från två ställen i Kangerlussuaq-området analyserades och mineralsammansättningen mättes med röntgenstrålningsspektroskopi (XRF). Med det uppmätta mineralinnehållet beräknades vittringssindex för att identifiera vittringshastigheter under Holocen. Ökad vittringsintesitet indikerar varmare och fuktigare klimat. Avlagringarna på Grönland är relativt tunna. Kol-14-datering av sedimentet antyder att de äldsta delarna är cirka 4000 cal. yr B.P. (kalibrerade år före nutid). Arktisk löss är relativt ostuderad. Vittringsindex som har utvecklats för klassisk löss i tempererade regioner, och tidigare inte testats på arktisk löss, användes. Resultaten ritades i grafer efter djup och ålder för att visuellt identifiera förändringar över tid. Genom att ta hänsyn till geologin, klimatet och lokala förhållanden i studieområdet, verkade några av vittringsindexen ge trovärdiga resultat då matchande trender mellan bägge profiler kunde utläsas. I jämförelse med resultat från tidigare studier verkade resultaten också trovärdiga.

abstract: Archean oxidative weathering reactions were likely important O2 sinks that delayed the oxygenation of Earth’s atmosphere, as well as sources of bio-essential trace metals such as Mo to the biosphere. However, the rates of these reactions are difficult to quantify experimentally at relevantly low concentrations of O2. With newly developed O2 sensors, weathering experiments were conducted to measure the rate of sulfide oxidation at Archean levels of O2, a level three orders of magnitude lower than previous experiments. The rate laws produced, combined with weathering models, indicate that crustal sulfide oxidation by O2 was possible even in a low O2 Archean atmosphere. Given the experimental results, it is expected that crustal delivery of bio-essential trace metals (such as Mo) from sulfide weathering was active even prior to the oxygenation of Earth’s atmosphere. Mo is a key metal for biological N2 fixation and its ancient use is evidenced by N isotopes in ancient sedimentary rocks. However, it is typically thought that Mo was too low to be effectively bioavailable early in Earth’s history, given the low abundances of Mo found in ancient sediments. To reconcile these observations, a computational model was built that leverages isotopic constraints to calculate the range of seawater concentrations possible in ancient oceans. Under several scenarios, bioavailable concentrations of seawater Mo were attainable and compatible with the geologic record. These results imply that Mo may not have been limiting for early metabolisms. Titanium (Ti) isotopes were recently proposed to trace the evolution of the ancient continental crust, and have the potential to trace the distribution of other trace metals during magmatic differentiation. However, significant work remains to understand fully Ti isotope fractionation during crust formation. To calibrate this proxy, I carried out the first direct measurement of mineral-melt fractionation factors for Ti isotopes in Kilauea Iki lava lake and built a multi-variate fractionation law for Ti isotopes during magmatic differentiation. This study allows more accurate forward-modeling of isotope fractionation during crust differentiation, which can now be paired with weathering models and ocean mass balance to further reconstruct the composition of Earth’s early continental crust, atmosphere, and oceans. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Geological Sciences 2020

Waimea Canyon is a deep V-shaped canyon on the island of Kauai, Hawaii in which the Waimea River and its tributaries flow. The shape and size of the canyon are noteworthy and unusual compared to its contemporary canyons on the Hawaiian Islands which are usually U-shaped or flat bottomed. This could be because there is significantly more physical erosion in Waimea Canyon compared to others. A water budget was created using ArcGIS Pro and data from the University of Hawaii’s rainfall and evapotranspiration atlases, as well as from the United States Geological Survey’s stream gage data. A mass flux was estimated using ArcGIS pro by creating a paleosurface from the ridge points and then finding the mass difference between todays watershed and the watershed with the paleosurface. Weathering reactions were made to model the processes in the watershed. The reactants were found from using oxide percentages of Kauai basalts and inputting them into MELTs to estimate mineralogy. The products were found by analysis of soil and water samples in the area of the Canyon. In the Waimea River watershed approximately 159 t/km2 /yr is removed, of which 56% is by physical erosion. This was compared to the V-shaped Makaweli river watershed where approximately 12% is removed by physical erosion and in the U-shaped Hanalei watershed ≈ 68% is removed. While these differences could be explained by vegetation cover, precipitation, and slope steepness it shows that there is not more physical erosion in Waimea Canyon compared to the others. Thus, the origin of the V-shape of Waimea Canyon remains unexplained.

The thesis project explores the architectural themes of time and virtuality in two parts. The first theme - time - is investigated through a photographical study of Kulturhuset in Stockholm, searching for physical traces of change. The study also reveals a faster time scale relating to the inhabitants and users of space.  The second part of the project relates to the photographs, building on the technique of the camera obscura to investigate the theme of virtuality. Through three full scale tests and different experiments, an attempt was made to manipulate the border between the physical and the virtual, demonstrated in a room obscura built up at the courtyard of the School of Architecture during the Diploma Days in June 2015.  The project moves from the observational part of the photograph into a physical exploration of what architecture is, how it works and possibly what it could be, from virtual to physical and back again. As a whole, the project is a collection of thoughts, of sights, of connections and of experiences. / Examensarbetet undersöker de arkitektoniska begreppen tid och virtualitet i två delar. Det första temat - tid - undersöks genom en fotografisk studie av Kulturhuset i Stockholm, ett sökande efter fysiska spår av förändring. Studien visar också en snabbare tidsskala som relaterar till användaren och brukaren av rummet. Den andra delen av projektet utgår från fotografierna och använder camera obscurans teknik för att undersöka temat virtualitet. Genom tre fullskaliga tester och olika experiment prövades gränsen mellan det fysiska och det virtuella, och demonstrerades slutligen i ett rum obscura som byggts upp på gården i Arkitekturskolan under Diploma Days, juni 2015. Projektet rör sig från ett observerande i fotografiet till en fysisk undersökning av vad arkitektur är, hur arkitektur fungerar och eventuellt vad det skulle kunna vara, från det virtuella till det fysiska och tillbaka igen. Som helhet är projektet en samling tankar, sevärdheter, kopplingar och erfarenheter.

No description available.