The degradation of wetlands and loss of their associated ecosystem services is widely recognised in South Africa, however, at present there is no standard method of biologically assessing wetland health in this country. Internationally, particularly in the U.S.A and Australia, wetland bioassessment techniques using macroinvertebrates are well established. A number of these wetland bioassessment protocols have been derived from local river biomonitoring techniques, as there is a belief that river and wetland ecology and macroinvertebrate assemblages at family level are similar. However, some authors consider wetland macroinvertebrate assemblages and ecological processes to differ greatly from those found in rivers, and believe that such techniques are not transferable. South Africa has a well established macroinvertebrate biomonitoring protocol for rivers called SASS5 (South African Scoring System Version 5). This study is a preliminary investigation into the extent to which the SASS5 scoring system is applicable to the assessment of nutrient enriched wetland water quality. Macroinvertebrates are particularly suitable as biomonitoring tools: they respond to a variety of stressors, have life cycles that allow for integrated responses to episodic pollution, and are relatively easy to identify to family level. When selecting wetlands for the development of a biomonitoring protocol, wetlands should all be of the same; classification (Le. palustrine), geomorphological and climate setting, hydrological regime and dominant vegetation class. Sampling was restricted to sedge-dominated palustrine wetlands in the midlands of KwaZulu-Natal, with similar hydro-geomorphological settings. Due to wetlands and rivers having different biotopes (e.g. no riffles present in wetlands), the SASS5 sampling protocol could not be used, thus a pilot investigation was undertaken to derive a suitable sampling technique for \ collecting a representative and diagnostic sample of aquatic macroinvertebrates from a wetland. This technique was developed based on published methods. Both sweep net and activity trap sampling were conducted, and each evaluated for their effectiveness at macroinvertebrate collection. Sweep net sampling was tested over a range of sweep intensities (2-6 sweeps), and activity traps were placed at four different depths: at the water surface, just below the surface, 0.10.15m below surface and on the substrate. A total of 32 taxa identified to family level were identified in the samples. Taxon diversity and composition did not differ in the activity traps placed at the four depth locations. Taxon diversity did not differ significantly between different sweep intensities; however there was a significant difference in taxon composition between the different sweep intensities and between activity trap and sweep net samples (p<0.05). Sixty-eight percent of taxa appeared more frequently in sweep net sampling compared to activity trap sampling. Six taxa were found exclusively in sweep net samples, and two taxa were recorded exclusively in activity traps. There was no trend in either method collecting more or missing any unique trophic group. In conclusion, activity traps are not required to supplement sweep net data, and a technique using a sweep net with a sweep intensity of five would be suitable to collect a representative sample of wetland macroinvertebrates. Using the derived technique, four reference and three wetlands impacted by dairy effluent were sampled. Six macroinvertebrate samples were collected from each of the seven wetland, together with data for selected physico-chemical variables, macrohabitat condition, biotope suitability and organism detectability. For each sample, the macroinvertebrates were identified and assigned a predetermined SASS5 tolerance score between 1 and 15, with higher scores indicating increased sensitivity to poor water quality. 11 A total of 39 taxa, identified to family level, were collected during sampling. SASS5 scores ranged from 15-82. Five of the wetlands had mean SASS5 scores of between 46 and 59. Five of the wetlands had an intra-wetland SASS5 score range greater than 30. ASPT values ranged from 3.3 to 5.5, and few high scoring (~8) taxa were collected. There was no significant difference in SASS5 scores between samples collected above, at and downstream of an effluent discharge point within the same impacted wetland. SASS5 scores for reference wetlands were also not significantly higher than those recorded for impacted wetlands. Comparison of ranked SASS5 scores and environmental data did suggest a relationship between the variables, but was not significant. Based on the SASS5 score water quality guidelines, all sampled wetlands were considered to have impacted water quality; however, this was not supported by the macrohabitat and physico-chemical results. Possible reasons for the low SASS5 scores include: the lack of 'stones in/out current' biotopes in wetlands, lower levels of dissolved oxygen present compared to rivers, and the limited detectability of organisms due to large amounts of substrate in the samples. A wetland adaptation of SASS5 would require the reassignment of modified scores to certain taxa based on their distribution in wetlands of varying water quality. The SASS5 score level of 100 and the ASPT value of 6 (as specified in the SASS5 score water quality guidelines) were found to be inappropriate for wetlands. It is suggested that, either the range of taxa tolerance scores be increased (1 to >15), or the score level of 100 be lowered. The ASPT value should also be reduced. Although SASS5 appears unsuitable for assessing wetlands, variations in taxon composition between sampled wetlands, identified through CA analysis, suggests that macroinvertebrates are responsive to changes in wetland condition, and thus have potential as indicators of wetland water quality. Nine taxa responsive to the presence of nitrogen have been identified as being potentially good indicators. iii Further research should focus on the testing of SASS5 throughout the year, in a range of wetland types, and in wetlands moderately to severely impacted by pollutants other than dairy effluent. It is recommended that a habitat or biotope index be developed and used in conjunction with any future wetland macroinvertebrate bioassessment protocols. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

The purpose of this creative project was to outline the concept of Wetland Incentive Zones and to develop a site masterplan based on this concept. Meant as an alternative to large single-site wetland banks, Wetland Incentive Zones would be linear areas of land where wetland construction and preservation efforts would be concentrated. The linear structure would distribute the benefits associated with wetlands through a greater area than would a typical wetland bank. If linked together, the zones would form a network of recreational greenways and function as a travel corridor for wildlife. Participating zone landowners would benefit from tax abatements on wetland acreage and other incentive programs. The public would benefit from the preservation and construction of wetlands and the zone's recreational and educational elements.The masterplan was developed to direct wetland site development opportunities and public recreation and educational functions within a 3200 acre study site located in Allen County, Indiana. This site masterplan identified areas suitable for wetland construction, investigated their potential as wildlife habitat, and the wetland condition likely to be supported. The development plan for the site was focused on the use of an abandoned railroad line as a trail system for public recreation and educational use. / Department of Landscape Architecture

This study examines the status and distribution of rail populations in northern Indiana. Because rails are secretive and difficult to study, there have been few attempts in Indiana to determine the impact of wetland loss on the populations of rails and other marsh-nesting birds. There can be little doubt, however, that the loss of Indiana wetlands during historic times has caused a dramatic decline in rail populations.Using tape-recorded calls to elicit vocalizations, the status and distribution of five species of rails were studied in a 25,900 km2 area in northern Indiana in 1993 and 1994. A total of 107 surveys were conducted at 46 natural wetlands and 42 restored wetlands. The species surveyed were Sora (Porzana carolina), Virginia Rail (Rallus limicola), King Rail (Rallus elegans), Yellow Rail (Coturnicops noveboracensis), and Black Rail (Laterallus jamaicensis). Playbacks were also used to detect American Bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus), Least Bittern (Ixobrychus exilis), Marsh Wren (Cistothorus palustris) and Sedge Wren (Cistothorus platensis). Data were also collected on all other species of marsh-nesting birds detected during this study.Rails exhibited a patchy distribution. A total of 25 Soras, 33 Virginia Rails, and 1 King Rail was detected in natural wetlands in 1993. In 1994, 75 Soras, 46 Virginia Rails, and 1 King Rail was detected in the natural wetlands. A total of 30 Soras and 9 Virginia Rails was found in the restored wetlands studied in 1993 and 1994. No Yellow or Black Rails were found. Ten Least Bitterns, 31 Marsh Wrens, and 6 Sedge Wrens were detected in natural wetlands, but these species were not observed in restored wetlands.The occurrence of rails in natural wetlands was positively correlated with wetland size, presence of shrub vegetation in the watershed, amount of emergent vegetation, proximity of other wetlands, and extent of cattail cover. Negative correlations were found for human disturbance, amount of open water, and watershed characteristics. The strongest negative correlationswere found for human disturbances in or around the wetland.In restored wetlands, a significant difference was found between the occurrence of Sora and Virginia Rails with Soras occurring more frequently than Virginia Rails. A near significant difference in rail occurrence between natural and restored wetlands was also found, with rails occurring more frequently in natural wetlands, suggesting that natural wetlands surveyed may be a more suitable habitat for rails than the restored wetlands surveyed.Restored wetlands surveyed in this study failed to attract American Bitterns, Least Bitterns, Marsh Wrens or Sedge Wrens. American Bitterns were reported in natural wetlands during this study, but they were not observed. / Department of Biology

In South Africa, the loss of wetlands and their associated benefits has been considerable. A need was identified for a system that, using available information, would assist in achieving a balance between local, mainly short-term benefits to individuals and spatially wider and longer term benefits to society. Such a system, termed WETLAND-USE, was developed with the philosophy that:(l) wetlands have been well demonstrated to supply several indirect benefits to society (e.g. water quality enhancement); (2) the impact on these benefits can be described on a qualitative basis using field indicators that characterize the wetland and the disturbance associated with a particular land-use; (3) this information can be communicated to wetland users, which will contribute to achieving a desired balance, provided there is an enabling organizational environment and due consideration is taken of the socio-economic and organizational factors affecting wetland management. The primary conceptual framework underlying WETLAND-USE was the pressure-state-perceptions-policy framework, which depicts: the mode of use (i.e. the pressure); how this affects the state of the system (including its underlying processes and the goods and services it delivers); which in turn shape the perceptions that ultimately determine the policy pertaining to further use. This cycle is repeated at a range of organizational levels from local to national and takes place within a particular socioeconomic context. WETLAND-USE, which was designed for use by fieldworkers, and built using a rule-based, expert system approach, has two main parts, dealing largely with biophysical and social aspects respectively. Part 1, which guides the collection of data relating to the state of the wetland, assists in: (1) predicting the likely impacts of disturbances associated with a proposed land-use (the pressure) on the wetland state, and (2) providing ongoing management guidelines for particular land-uses. Part 2 assists in: (1) describing the social, land tenure and policy contexts of the wetland; and (2) establishing and maintaining organizational arrangements, local policy and management objectives and goals. Several discrete investigations were required for the development and refinement of WETLAND-USE, which was done in an iterative fashion. Initial discrete investigations fed into the development of a prototype system which was refined through evaluation using a questionnaire survey and further discrete investigations. The revised system was re-evaluated using a fieldworkshop approach and, based on the performance of the system in the field, it was revised further to produce the final system. In the two initial discrete studies, protocols were developed for characterizing key physical determinants of wetland functioning, notably: (1) degree of wetness, one of the primary functional determinants, described in the field using readily identifiable soil morphological indicators (e.g. matrix chroma and mottles) and (2) landform setting, which strongly influences local flow patterns and lateral exchange of water and water-borne materials. Graminoid plant species composition and functional groups (defined in terms of photosynthetic pathway) were then described in relation to the above physical determinants, together with rainfall, temperature and soil texture, within wetlands spanning a wide altitudinal range. This revealed that degree of wetness and altitude had the strongest influence over the vegetation parameters examined. An investigation into incorporating cumulative impacts into wetland decision making revealed that consideration should be given to: wetland loss in relation to ecoregions and catchments, and the relation of change in wetland extent, spatial configuration and context respectively to wetland function. Current conservation initiatives in KwaZulu-Natal were shown to account poorly for cumulative impacts on wetlands. Rules of thumb for making such considerations, given severe data limitations, were developed with reference to the high turn-over of species along the altitudinal gradient observed in the vegetation study. The "rules" were than applied to a case-study, the upper Mgeni catchment, as part of an initiative to engage a diversity of stakeholders in wetland information gathering and use. This resulted in the selection of priority wetlands in the catchment and an examination of the extent to which integration had been achieved vertically (across hierarchical levels) and horizontally (across organizations within particular hierarchical levels). In order to broaden the range of land-uses accounted for by the WETLAND-USE prototype, it was applied to a communally used wetland, Mbongolwane, and found to account poorly for the traditional cultivation and vegetation harvesting practices encountered. WETLAND-USE was modified to include a greater diversity of land-use types as well as enhancing its capacity to allow assessments to be conducted using the system's general criteria, thereby making WETLAND-USE more robust. In enhancing the capacity of WETLAND-USE to account for the social and organizational dimension of wetland management, the involvement of local and outside organizations in influencing wetland resource use in five sites was examined in relation to predefined frameworks. The sites, Mandlazini wetland, Mbongolwane wetland, Blood River vlei, Ntabamhlope vlei and Wakkerstroom vlei were chosen to represent a diversity of social contexts and management authorities. This revealed that in communally used areas in particular, a wide range of organizations are involved to varying degrees in influencing the use of different wetland resources. The level to which the local organizational environment contributed to sustainable use varied greatly among wetlands, but in all cases had important deficiencies: (1) self-governing resource-management organizations were largely lacking and in communal areas were weakening under contemporary conditions; and (2) although a formal management system was in place in two of the five wetlands, it was largely absent in the remaining three. There has been little involvement from extension services in facilitating local policy development and in promoting alternative land-uses which have less pressure on the state of the wetland. Local wetland management policy and collaboration among land-owners in wetlands under multiple separate ownership such as Blood River vlei was identified as being particularly poor. The evaluations of WETLAND-USE revealed that, in relation to the underlying philosophy of the thesis, WETLAND-USE had been improved through field application and incorporation of the findings of the discrete investigations. Nevertheless, important limitations of the study were highlighted, including: its high level of reliance on expert opinion in the face of a paucity of empirical data relating to the functioning of local wetlands and their attendant benefits (and how these are affected by anthropogenic disturbances), and a particularly shallow representation of socio-economic factors. The identification of these limitations was useful in highlighting key areas for further research. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1999.

This study examined the responses of algae and invertebrates to a single application of nutrients in a series of experimental wetland enclosures in the Interlake Region of Manitoba during 1989 and 1990. Water, sediment and vegetation chemistry were also monitored. The 3 fertilization treatments were: dissolved inorganic high (6200 $ mu$g/l N, 420 $ mu$g/l P), dissolved inorganic low (3200 $ mu$g/l N, 210 $ mu$g/l P) and organic high (alfalfa: 6200 $ mu$g/l N, 420 $ mu$g/l P). / Dissolved nutrients in the high and low treatments were quickly depleted from the system but dissolved N increased in the alfalfa treatment as decomposition progressed. No changes in sediment or vegetation chemistry were detected. Phytoplankton biomass increased in all the fertilized enclosures while epiphytic periphyton exhibited only minor responses. Epipelon biomass increased in the alfalfa treatment and metaphyton standing crops were extensive in the high treatment enclosures. / In the alfalfa treatment, high microbial respiration rapidly decreased dissolved oxygen concentrations which negatively affected invertebrates. This trend reversed as oxygen levels increased. Dominant nektonic and benthic herbivores-detritivores increased in the high and alfalfa treatment enclosures. Orthocladiinae emergence increased in the high and alfalfa treatments while Chironominae and Tanypodinae increased in the alfalfa treatment. Responses by algae and invertebrate communities to the fertilization treatments were minimal during 1990. Annual single pulse fertilization has the potential to increase the productivity of Interlake wetlands.

Thesis (M.E.S.)--The Evergreen State College, 2007. / Title from title screen (viewed on 1/10/2008). Includes bibliographical references (p. 48-51).

Thesis (M.E.S.)--The Evergreen State College, 2006. / Title from title screen viewed (1/30/2008). Includes bibliographical references (leaves 91-93).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury, 1996. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 511-557).

Thesis (M.Sc.) - Carleton University, 2006. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 142-146). Also available in electronic format on the Internet.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Mississippi State University. Department of Biological Sciences. / Title from title screen. Includes bibliographical references.