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Thesis (D. Tech.) - Central University of Technology, Free State, 2009 / All over the African continent south of the Sahara Desert, African lion numbers are plummeting to levels where, over large areas of their remaining distribution range, extinction has become a real threat. The main reason for the decreasing numbers is the increasing conflict between livestock farmers and lions. Lions are forced to kill livestock where their natural prey has been squeezed out by livestock and associated farming practices, and the farmers find it necessary to protect their livelihoods, often through the indiscriminate killing of lions. In the Kgalagadi-South region of Botswana, lion/livestock interactions present a challenge to livestock owners and wildlife managers alike. The relatively low ecological carrying capacity and occupied lion habitats in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) force some expelled young adult and sub-adult lions southwards into the adjoining Wildlife Management Area (WMA) KD/15, which separates the KTP and the communal grazing area. This WMA most likely also contains resident prides. Some of these predators sporadically enter the livestock grazing area. Similarly, large stock often enters the WMA. It is mostly these boundary transgressions that result in livestock killing, and the reaction of livestock owners often leads to the killing of lions. To gather information concerning the nature and extent of the situation, two questionnaires were prepared with the assistance of the Department of Biostatistics of the University of the Free State, South Africa. One questionnaire targeted livestock owners while the other was aimed at wildlife officials of the Department of Wildlife and National Parks in Botswana and SANParks in South Africa. Both covered the five-year period 2002-2006. A trial run was carried out to adjust to problem-specific circumstances before fieldwork commenced. Fieldwork was done during four consecutive seasons – in January, February, April and December 2007. Thirty livestock respondents and 13 wildlife officials were interviewed during the first two excursions into the study area. The third visit was to plot the cut-line between the WMA and the grazing area (by means of a Global Positioning System or GPS) and to make first-hand observations regarding movement over the cut-line. During all four visits the environmental (including grazing) conditions and density and distribution of wildlife and stock were observed in both the WMA and the grazing areas. The information gathered points towards a seemingly unsolvable situation. The exceptionally high daytime temperatures and food scarcity, brought about by erratic rainfall, overgrazing near boreholes, generally low carrying capacity and low phosphorus (P) levels, force large stock, i.e. cattle, horses, donkeys and mules, to graze far away from the safety of the cattle-posts during the cool hours of the night, thus making kraaling impractical. Such circumstances enhance exposure to lion predation especially in or near the WMA and the KTP fence. Some lions also penetrate deep into the grazing areas, especially in the arid western part of the study area. This study revealed certain weaknesses in current wildlife and livestock management practices in the study area, the sum of which put both farmers and the lion population under extreme pressure. Most of these shortcomings can be rectified without drastic invasive methods. Such adjustments can result in improved livestock and wildlife utilisation and protection of the lions. For example: the placement of mixed phosphorus and salt licks near cattle-posts to fulfil the need for vital micro and macro elements; addressing unnecessary livestock losses, which contribute to a lower income and less tolerance towards predation (e.g. botulism, which may stem from stock chewing on bones in their desire for more phosphorus, and losses to black-backed jackal, Canis mesomelas, in poorly maintained kraals); more drinking troughs at boreholes to prevent unnecessary shoving and minimise energy waste; and the introduction of more bulls to herds to increase the calving percentage. The study further concluded that there is little reason why stockowners should consider protecting lions. It suggests that significant value can be added to the wildlife (and the protection of lions) in the specific area by making farmers and other local residents share in the relatively untapped ecotourism potential of the area.

As the earth’s landscape becomes increasingly urbanized, local wildlife must adapt to urban conditions or migrate to areas that are more rural. Urban wildlife face challenges such as direct loss of habitat, competition with non-native species, disturbance due to anthropogenic noise, and micro-climatic changes. Factors such as temperature, relative humidity, and noise affect the acoustical environment and may affect the ability of many animals, including birds, to communicate. Understanding how urbanization affects birds’ singing behavior is critical because singing often plays a vital role in attracting mates and defending territories. In addition, as global climate change occurs it will become increasingly important to understand the influence of abiotic factors such as temperature on the singing behavior of birds. Developing a deeper understanding of how those abiotic factors affect singing and other associated behaviors may help guide future conservation actions. Carolina Wrens are often used to study the role of singing in defending territories. They are also a common subject for ranging studies. However, surprisingly little research has been conducted on the factors influencing Carolina Wren song activity over the course of a day. No studies have compared the singing activity of Carolina Wrens in urban and rural environments. The purpose of this study was to compare the singing activity of Carolina Wrens in urban and rural areas. Specifically, this study looked for patterns in the timing of songs throughout the day and examined the effects of season, temperature, and anthropogenic noise on singing activity in urban and rural settings. I analyzed data from 4 SongMeter© SM2 data loggers (2 located at an urban park in Bowling Green, KY and 2 located at a rural preserve in Hart County, KY). The data loggers were programmed to record ambient sound for 3 minutes at the beginning of every hour. A Hobo® data logger was deployed with each SongMeter© SM2 data logger to record temperature and relative humidity at 15-minute intervals. One week of data in May and one week of data in July were analyzed. Both weeks had similar photoperiods, temperatures, and amounts of precipitation. For each recording, I documented the number of Carolina Wren songs I heard and a categorical assessment of the precipitation and anthropogenic noise due to traffic or machinery. I conducted Chi-square analyses to compare the seasonal or site-based observed frequencies of singing activity to the corresponding expected frequencies. In May, Carolina Wrens at the urban site sang more than their rural counterparts. Daily activity patterns were visually analyzed using the average number of songs detected for each hour’s sampling period. No Carolina Wrens were heard singing the hour before sunrise or the hour after sunset. In May, the dawn chorus lasted nearly twice as long as in July. Zero-inflated Poisson regressions were used to determine the correlations between Carolina Wren singing activity and temperature or anthropogenic noise. Carolina Wren singing activity had significant correlations with both variables.

Monitoring the distribution, abundance and demography of species is vital to ensure that conservation efforts are appropriate and effective. Monitoring enables evaluation of responses to natural or human disturbance, highlights the need for management interventions and enables these interventions to be assessed and refined. The methods used largely depend on the specific aim of monitoring and behaviour of the target species, as well as the time and spatial scale that monitoring is required to cover. The European pine marten (Martes martes) is one of few remaining mammalian predators native to the UK. Since persecution in the early 19th century resulted in their near extinction, pine martens have recovered part of their former range in Scotland. Their recent recovery and an overlap in territory with vulnerable prey species such as the capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) make the collection of accurate baseline data and subsequent monitoring of population trends vital for conservation efforts. Faecal counts have traditionally been used to provide a relative measure of population density for pine marten. In most cases, absolute measures of population density require individual identification. Non-invasive genotyping can provide this information but the quality of DNA from these samples is often poor. Here, the process is refined for pine marten faeces (scats) and hair samples. DNA degradation increased significantly for scats exposed to rainfall, with the rate of DNA amplification success reduced by 38% over a 16 day period. Success rates for hair samples were higher when more hair follicles were included in the analysis. Population densities were estimated for three forests in Scotland using a robust combination of non-invasive genotyping of hair samples and spatially explicit capture recapture modelling. Population density estimates of 0.07 (95% CI 0.03 - 0.16) to 0.38 km-2 (95% CI 0.11 - 1.07) were obtained which are within the range of previous estimates for forests elsewhere in Scotland. The first attempt to quantify the relationship between traditional scat counts and home range size was then conducted; a significant negative correlation exists but only when population density is relatively low. Previous studies suggest that pine martens in Western Europe are less forest dependent than those in Eastern Europe. Results from this thesis support this, with populations at the highest density found at sites with intermediate forest cover. This tolerance of lower forest cover is also apparent in the diet. Despite a preference for Myodes voles in populations in Eastern Europe, those in Western Europe show a strong preference for Microtus voles as well as a higher level of frugivory. We assess the autumn diet of four populations in Scotland assess the effect of forest cover and sex on the diet. There was no evidence of differential consumption of Microtus voles or birds between the sexes. Our analysis shows that frugivory is influenced by forest fragmentation, with a 5-fold increase in the occurrence of fruit (from 2% to 10%) as forest cover increased from 4% to 47%. Diversionary feeding has been suggested as a management technique to reduce the depredation of capercaillie by pine martens. This thesis presents the first attempt to quantify the success and cost-efficacy of diversionary feeding for a range of problems (crop damage, threatened safety, livestock depredation) across 30 experimental trials. The strategy proved more effective when targeted towards food-limited populations, and when aiming to alleviate habitat damage or risks to human safety rather than depredation. A novel decision-making framework was developed to aid managers with the initial planning of the strategy and its subsequent implementation within an adaptive format. Further to this, the feasibility of using diversionary feeding with a view to reduce the depredation of capercaillie by pine martens was assessed. Questionnaire responses were collected from people who have provided food for pine martens throughout Scotland. A positive reaction to food was observed, with 58% of respondents reporting that initial visits occurred within one week of placement and 46% reporting that subsequent visits were received daily. These results suggest that diversionary feeding may be a viable option for pine marten management, although testing of its impact on capercaillie productivity would be required.

The younger life history stages of marine turtles (eggs, hatchlings) often fail to survive. To compensate, sea turtles nest several times/season and produce large clutches of eggs. The hawksbill produces the largest clutches (150 eggs) and the smallest hatchlings of any marine turtle. My study, done at Jumby Bay in Antigua, West Indies, was designed to determine whether they did so to compensate for loss in the nest, hatchling loss in the water, or both factors. I found that most of the eggs (79 %) survived to become hatchlings that left the nest and entered the sea. However, 88 % of the hatchlings swimming offshore were taken by predators within minutes after they began their migration. These results suggest that at Jumby Bay, large clutch size is favored in hawksbills because of predation pressures on the hatchlings. / Includes bibliography. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2013.

The Bandon Marsh is a large marsh restoration project located in southwest Oregon. The land has been previously used for dairy farms and much of the marsh was used for cattle grazing. The goal of the restoration is to recreate a natural habitat for shorebirds and fish. The purpose of this thesis is to gather and analyze data on the geology of the marsh and both ground and surface water quality to evaluate its ability to support biology. The US Fish and Wildlife Service began restoration on the Bandon marsh in 2005. Research on the Ni-les'tun Unit began in that same year with Geoprobe coring, Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), piezometer well installation, and surface water analysis. Twelve cores were taken with the Geoprobe in 2006 and later analyzed for this thesis. A total of 50 GPR lines were run across the marsh ranging from ~25 m to 1,200 m in length for a total of about 9,700 meters (9.7 km). The ten piezometer wells were sampled to collect groundwater pH, oxidation-reduction potential, salinity, temperature, and well water elevation. Twelve channel sampling sites were chosen to be sampled in three field runs taking place in winter 2011, summer 2011, and winter 2012. The summer 2011 and winter 2012 sampling runs were done after tide gates had been removed from the marsh. The Geoprobe core samples were retrieved for extensive lab analysis. Analyses included; bulk density, porosity, permeability, and grain size studies. Lab results revealed a low permeability fine grained upper sedimentary unit ranging from ~0.5 to ~2.5 meters depth with a coarser grained higher permeability lower unit. GPR lines were analyzed for groundwater surface depths and buried channel cut and fill features (Peterson et. al., 2004). GPR results showed a fairly shallow groundwater surface around 0.5 meters in the north down to 2.0 meters in the south. The piezometer wells showed a seasonal variation in well water elevation with higher elevations in the winter and lower in the summer. Well water chemistry showed both seasonal and spatial variations. Values for pH and dissolved oxygen were lower in the north side of the marsh and higher in the south side, and pH was higher in the summer than in the winter. Wells that were more proximal (within ~400 m) to the Coquille River Estuary showed higher conductivity (salinity) values than those that were more distal (greater than ~400 m). Channel sampling results showed similar trends as the groundwater results. The lower pH values tended to be in the north side of the marsh as well as lower dissolved oxygen values. Again, there was a spatial variability in conductivity with the higher values found closer to the Coquille River. Conductivity in the channel water showed a great seasonal variability with the highest values occurring in the summer time and much lower values in the winter. As expected, channel water increased about 10°C on average from winter to summer. The results of all of these observations and analyses are combined to put together a generalized flow model showing the different water inputs into the channel waters on the Ni-les'tun Unit. Once these inputs were derived, conclusions can be made on the quality of the water and its ability to support small aquatic life.

Imperfect information on aspects of biodiversity conservation will constrain the extent to which tourists’ preferences for biodiversity conservation are revealed in game reserve (GR) tariffs, reducing the incentive for tourism businesses to invest in biodiversity conservation. Accreditation is an institutional approach to addressing the issue of imperfect information on biodiversity conservation. In this study, Choice Experiments (CE) and the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) are used to estimate tourist’s willingness-to-pay (WTP) to visit biodiversity conservation accredited terrestrial nature-based tourism (NBT) destinations in selected areas of South Africa (SA). A survey of 97 domestic tourists and 96 foreign tourists was conducted at 16 private and public GR camps in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal (NEKZN) and Mpumalanga/Limpopo Provinces (MP/LP) during October and November 2004. The survey captured socio-economic data to be used in discriminating between market segments, eighteen hypothetical CE questions and a CVM question. Analyses comparing the preferences of domestic tourists from foreign tourists, tourists visiting NEKZN from tourists visiting MP/LP and tourists visiting private GRs from tourists visiting public GRs were performed. In addition, Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) was used to identify groups of tourists with similar preferences. Respondents are grouped into three market segments according to their revealed preferences using HCA. Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) was used to discriminate the three groups based on socio-economic characteristics. These groups were named “Conservation Vacationers”, “Incidental Sightseers” and “Big 5 Brigade” based on socioeconomic characteristics unique to each group. The region (NEKZN or MP/LP), level of education and itinerary (independent travellers or part of tour group) were the most powerful in discriminating “Big 5 Brigade” from the other two groups in the first function. The second function primarily discriminates Conservation Vacationers from Incidental Sightseers based on membership to a wildlife society, gender and education. Results of the CE and CVM studies respectively, indicate that, overall, respondents were willing to pay premiums of R114.41 and R87.67 per person per night (all premiums are presented as per person per night, unless otherwise stated) to stay at a GR accredited with having a high standard of biodiversity conservation. Foreign tourists were, on average, willing to pay the highest premium of R136.35 for biodiversity conservation accreditation, while tourists visiting private GRs were, on average, willing to pay the lowest premium of R 96.42. A further three market segments were identified using HCA. The average WTP estimates for biodiversity conservation accreditation for Groups 1(Conservation Vacationer), 2(Incidental Sightseer) and 3(Big 5 Brigade), identified by HCA were R171.41, R66.15 and R14.94, respectively. On average, respondents in all groups, game-viewing quality was most highly valued, followed by the level of congestion. Results of this study may be useful to NBT operators and managers in developing marketing strategies targeting specific market segments. Analysis of the results by market segments indicates that CE may be a more reliable technique than CVM. Further research on the costs and benefits of biodiversity conservation accreditation is necessary to predict the extent to which NBT businesses are likely to adopt biodiversity conservation accreditation. / Thesis (M.Agric.Man.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

The backbone of this study was a systems thinking based analysis of the management and control of predators as practiced in South Africa since the advent of Europeans in 1652. The first bounties were introduced for a variety of animal species in 1656. Many species became labeled as vermin and were persecuted, often with the intention of eradication. A variety of controls have been applied, of which many have not kept pace with contemporary thinking or technology, and which by simply killing predators fail to address the crux of the issue of predator – livestock conflict. Many of the methods used cannot be applied to specifically remove an individual damage-causing animal. Considerable collateral ecological damage is inflicted by the killing of animals regarded as innocent bystanders. The objective of the analysis was to highlight the futility of temporary solutions which fail to resolve the conflict in the long term. These quick fixes frequently perpetuate an ecological imbalance which exacerbates the predator – livestock conflict. The analysis used raw data from a questionnaire survey conducted by the Poison Working Group of the Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT-PWG) (2003). The EWT-PWG intended to assess pesticide abuse as toxicant for predators by farmers, and to identify all control methods used. The data forthcoming was Cartesian in nature and a fixed snap-shot in time. This study sought to identify the root cause of the conflict by applying systems thinking which added the dimension of cause and effect interrogation. The study categorised and described predator conflict management methods as lethal or preventative, and assessed each category in archetypal terms from a systems thinking perspective. It also sought to identify leverage points, or small changes which have profound effects, to stimulate a change in approach to humanpredator conflict management. In order to assess and illustrate the positive change brought about by application of preventative methods, a small group of farmers who had initiated changes in their predator conflict management over the five years subsequent to the EWTPWG survey were selected from the original group for reassessment. Through evaluation of predator conflict management methods from a systems thinking perspective, and by probing learning processes, the shortcomings or failure of inappropriate management responses to conflict situations were shown to exacerbate conflicts. Contrarily, it was illustrated that application of systems thinking and a process of addressing the root cause of conflict issues in predator conflict management, was a longer term solution. The study illustrated that application of long term proactive prevention and conflict avoidance principles, can offer long term solutions for predator conflict managers. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.) - University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

Masai Mara, a large nature reserve in south-western Kenya, was created in the midst of semi-arid agropastoralist rangelands to protect wildlife. Wildlife and indigenous people co-existed for many years, usually with limited conflict; but in recent years, the conflict has intensified, mainly due to increasing human population, changing land use patterns, and altered perceptions of wildlife. This study examines the causes and nature of wildlife-human conflict in the Masai rangelands of Kenya, and considers how wildlife conservation and human development needs can best be integrated. / Findings indicate that common conflicts are livestock depredation and crop damage, human deaths or injuries, transmission of diseases, and competition for resources. Land surrounding the reserve can be divided into two distinct topographic and agroclimatic regions. The degree of conflict is spatially varied within the region. Upland ranches have high land use potential, high human and livestock population densities, and more development of agriculture. They experience limited conflict with wildlife. Lowland ranches are more arid, have lower human population density and little agriculture, but have high wildlife and livestock population densities and experience a high degree of conflict. These conflicts vary seasonally, and with distance from the protected area. / Perceptions of wildlife and attitudes towards conservation are related to past experience with wildlife. The degree of loss, effectiveness of damage control, fairness of government compensation, and involvement in wildlife tourism affect the degree of tolerance for wildlife conflict. Various socio-economic factors including level of education, knowledge of conservation priorities, and system of land ownership are related to attitudes towards wildlife. As human activity increases in the region, wildlife is more likely to be displaced. Because most animals are migratory, conflict in the land surrounding the reserve puts the viability of animal population in the protected area in question. / A two-phase program for integrating wildlife conservation with human needs is proposed. The first phase involves designation of the region into four zones: Zone A--the protected area, Zone B--the peripheral area, Zone C--multiple use, and Zone D--agriculture. The second phase of the program is the integration of the wildlife conservation with human interests through: community wildlife-damage-control, compensation for loss, sharing of tourism benefits with local people, conservation education, and local participation in wildlife conservation policy. The program provides a framework within which operational decisions can be made, and serves broader natural resource management and community development objectives in the rangelands.

Thesis (MA (Geography and Environmental Studies)--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This research focuses on the black rhinoceros and ecotourism in three conservation areas in the Kunene region of Namibia. The reciprocal impact between black rhino and community-based ecotourism is analysed. The research is located in two communal conservancies, #Khoadi-//Hôas and Torra, and in a photographic tourism concession, the Palmwag Concession Area. The research aims to explore and describe the reciprocal impact of community-based ecotourism efforts and black rhino spatial movement patterns in three conservation areas in north-west Namibia. An in-depth literature review was undertaken on the reciprocal impact between rhino-tracking tourism and conservation. A comparison was also made between the effects of human-induced disturbance on spatial movement patterns of black rhinos and the perception of tourists about tracking black rhinos. The value of black rhinos to community-based ecotourism was also determined. Quantitative research methodology was used for this study. Explorations of objectives were conducted through direct field observation with the aid of radio-telemetry tracking and aerial surveying for data gathering. The researcher employed SRT (Save the Rhino Trust) trackers in the study areas to assist with the tracking. The sample consisted of 24 transmitter-fitted black rhino in the three conservation areas. Rhino not fitted with transmitters have been included in the sample for more accurate results. Four hundred questionnaires were distributed at four tourist lodges in the study area. The hypothesis that sustainable ecotourism does not influence black rhino spatial behaviour was rejected. Rhinos in the study were easily disturbed and did not readily return to undisturbed behaviour. Their major response to disturbance was to run away. The disturbance was influenced by their initial activity when found. The highest disturbance occurred early in observations. Rhinos illustrated similar causes of disturbance throughout the study sites. The Springbok River emerged as the area with the most severe reactions to disturbance. This was supported by home range data and ecological constraints. Analysis of tourist responses regarding rhino tracking indicated a high demand for and level of satisfaction. This was the single determining factor for tourists to return to the Kunene region to do rhino tracking again. Tourists were willing to pay close to market price to track black rhino. It is recommended that tracking of black rhino should be avoided in the Springbok River and Aub/Barab areas. Tracking protocols should stipulate that tracking should only be conducted early in the morning; that rhinos may only be approached from downwind; that observation time may not exceed 15 minutes; that groups must be kept small; and that the approach distance may not be less than 100 metres. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die fokus van die navorsing is op swart renosters en ekotoerisme in drie bewaringsgebiede in die Kunene streek van Namibia. Die wedersydse wisselwerking tussen swart renosters en gemeenskaps-gebaseerde ekotoerisme is nagevors. Die navorsing het plaasgevind in twee kommunale bewaringsgebiede, #Khoadi-//Hôas en Torra asook ‘n konsessie vir fotografie in die Palmwag Konsessie Gebied. Die doel van die navorsing was om die wedersydse wisselwerking van gemeenskapsgebaseerde ekotoerisme en swart renosters se geografiese bewegingspatrone in drie bewaringsareas in noordwes Namibië te ondersoek en te omskryf. ‘n Deeglike literatuurstudie is gedoen ten opsigte van die wedersydse wisselwerking tussen toerisme met die doel om renosters waar te neem deur spoorsny en bewaring van die spesies. Die uitwerking van versteuring deur mense op die geografiese bewegingspatrone van swart renosters is vergelyk met die persepsie van toeriste ten opsigte van spoorsny van swart renosters. Die waarde van swart renosters ten opsigte van ekotoerisme is ook bepaal. Kwantitatiewe navorsingsmetodologie is gebruik in die studie. Die doelstelling van die navorsing is uitgevoer deur direkte veld waarnemings met behulp van radio-telemetriese opsporing en data insameling met behulp van lugsensusse. Die navorser het spoorsnyers van SRT (Save the Rhino Trust), wat in die studiegebied werk, in diens geneem om van hulp te wees met die spoorsny van renosters. Die steekproef het bestaan uit 24 swart renosters toegerus met seintoestelle in drie bewaringsgebiede. Renosters wat nie seintoestelle gehad het nie, is ook in die steekproef ingesluit ten einde beter dekking te verkry. Vierhonderd vraelyste is by vier toeristeoorde in die studiegebied versprei. Die hipotese dat volhoubare ekotoerisme nie ‘n invloed uitoefen op die geografiese gedrag van swart renosters nie, is verwerp. Renosters in die studie-gebied is maklik versteur en het nie geredelik teruggekeer tot onversteurde gedrag nie. Hulle reaksie op versteuring was gekenmerk deur weg te hardloop. Die mate van versteuring is bepaal deur die renosters se aanvanklike aktiwiteit by opsporing. Die meeste versteuring het gedurende vroeë waarneming plaasgevind. Dieselfde oorsake van versteuring is in al drie gebiede gevind. Die Springbokrivier was die gebied waar die sterkste reaksies ten opsigte van versteuring bespeur is. Dit word ondersteun deur die grootte van die loopgebiede van die renosters en ekologiese beperkings van die gebied. Data-analise van toeriste-vraelyste het aangetoon dat daar ‘n groot aanvraag en belangstelling is in die spoorsny van renosters. Die grootste bepalende faktor vir toeriste om na die Kunene streek terug te keer, is om renosters te sien deur middel van spoorsny. Toeriste is gewillig om die heersende markprys vir spoorsny van renosters te betaal. Navorsingsaanbevelings sluit in dat spoorsny van swart renosters in die Springbokrivier en Aub/Barab gebiede vermy word. Spoorsny-protokol moet stipuleer dat dit net in die vroeë oggend gedoen word, dat renosters slegs van onderkant die wind genader word, waarnemingstyd mag nie 15 minute oorskry nie, groepe moet klein wees en die afstand vanaf die diere mag nie nader as 100 meter wees nie.