Thesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Studying wild animals in nature is a complex and tedious task for biologists and ecologists. The rugged terrain in which the animals live and hide makes it for researchers difficult to follow and observe the animals. Technology is used to facilitate studies on animals, usually in the form of radio tracking devices. This thesis discusses the problems and shortfalls surrounding the current technology and looks at various ways of improving it. Expanding tracking collars to capture the needed data, as well as improving the radio links to continuously provide data, are seen as the most important improvements. The proposed solution makes use of a wireless network, through which a tracking collar can have an unbroken connection with the outside world. The study focuses on the radio links themselves and topics including antennas, radio frequency bands and propagation effects of the surroundings. An existing routing protocol to use on top of the physical radio links is discussed. Hardware for all parts of the network is designed, built and tested. Proper ways of capturing data in a power efficient way are stated and recommended. Measurements were taken with the hardware prototypes in a location comparable to where the system will ultimately be used. The results obtained proved the feasibility of such a radio network. Radio coverage simulations were set up to predict the coverage that is to be expected by the chosen radios in the location where the tests were done. The simulation parameters were changed until the simulated results most closely matched the real life measurements. Vegetation caused an extra attenuation of around 20dB in the radio signal. Using the tuned parameters for the simulation a network can be designed and costs calculated before huge investments are made. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Om wilde diere in die natuur te bestudeer is vir wetenskaplikes ’n uitdagende onderneming. Die ongerepte natuur waarin die diere bly, maak dit vir die dierkundiges moeilik om die diere op te spoor en te agtervolg. Tegnologie word gewoonlik ingespan in hierdie studies en meestal word radiosporingstoestelle gebruik. Hierdie tesis bespreek die probleme en tekortkominge in die bestaande tegnologie. Verskeie moontlike verbeteringe word bekyk. Radiosporingshalsbande wat uitgebrei word om metings te neem, en verbetering van die radioverbindings met die halsbande is twee van die belangrikste punte waarop verbeter kan word. In die voorgestelde verbeterings word ’n radionetwerk gebruik om op ’n deurlopende basis kontak tussen die halsbande en die buitewêreld te verseker. Die studies lê klem op die radioverbindings en onderwerpe soos antennas en radiofrekwensiebande. Radioseine se voortplantingskenmerke in die betrokke omgewing word bespreek. ’n Bestaande netwerkprotokol om op die radioverbindings te implementeer word ook bepsreek. Apparatuur vir alle dele van die netwerk is ontwerp, gebou en getoets. Metodes van datavaslegging op ’n energiedoeltreffende wyse word beskryf en aanbevelings daarvoor gemaak. Metings is geneem met die prototipe van die apparate in ’n plek wat vergelykbaar is met waar die uiteindelike stelsel gebruik behoort te word. Die resulte wat verkry is, het die nut van die radionetwerk bewys. Simulasies van die radiodekking is opgestel om die verwagte dekkings van die betrokke radios in die veld te bepaal. Die simulasieparameters is geleidelik verander totdat die simulasieresultate met die werklike metings ooreenstem. Plantegroei het ’n ekstra verswakking van ongeveer 20dB in die radiosein veroorsaak. Die vasgestelde parameters kan gebruik word in ’n simulasie vir die ontwerp van ’n grootskaalse netwerk. Resultate verkry vanuit die simulasie kan gebruik word vir kosteberekings voordat grootskaalse beleggings gemaak word.

Conflict with livestock farmers is the most serious threat to the survival of the jaguar (Panthera onca) across its range of 19 countries of the Americas. In this thesis I examine the needs for mitigating human-jaguar conflict at a range-wide scale by: a) reviewing the state of knowledge on the topic, b) modelling the risk of conflict across the range, c) analysing a series of empirical field case studies, and d) proposing appropriate approaches for different levels of conflict. Findings from 43 published studies and 117 expert-described cases show that human-jaguar conflict occurs on large cattle ranches, mixed farms and smallholdings alike. Depletion of prey and poor livestock husbandry are reported as the key reasons for depredation, regardless of ecological, cultural or socio-economic context. Attitudes and tolerance towards jaguars are not necessarily linked to losses, so recent research has focussed on understanding the behaviours of farmers. With 65% of the remaining jaguar range outside of protected areas, effective strategies for coexistence with farmers are essential. By combining geospatial datasets with expert-based information, spatial patterns of human-jaguar conflicts were presented in a predictive model of conflict hotspots. Around 85% of the total jaguar range, 72% of the total Jaguar Conservation Units area and 90% of the Jaguar Corridor area overlap with livestock, and 15% of the jaguar range has risk of conflict. Regions in which jaguars are repeatedly persecuted may become ecological traps and decimate populations. An aggregate study of 17 case studies across seven countries exposed a very large variety of geographic, agronomic and socio-economic contexts. Both within and across case studies there are considerable differences in farmers’ experiences with livestock losses, concerns about depredation, levels of tolerance and attitudes, as well as social norms towards jaguars in each community. No situational factors could be used to predict how farmers perceive jaguars and deal with depredation. The only pattern consistent across case studies was that attitudes towards jaguars are most likely predicted by a factor of perceived loses combined with the social norms of the community. In most scenarios, correctly balanced strategies of improving husbandry combined with behaviour-influencing methods may be the best way forward. To this end, a conceptual model is proposed, which distinguishes three levels of conflict and explains the importance of addressing any underlying history of grievances or incompatibility of values as part of any human-wildlife conflict mitigation strategy.

The black lechwe Kobus leche smithemani) is an antelope that belongs to the family reduncinae. Its current population is confined to the Bangweulu Basin in the northern Zambia. This research was undertaken to assess its current population status, the sex and age ratios, carrying capacity of the flood-plain where it occurs and its maximum sustainable yield. The study also estimated its potential sustainable off-take and looked into the links that exists between wildlife and socio-economics in order to demonstrate the views of local people on current wildlife management and utilisation. Historical records suggest that these antelopes were more widely spread and more numerous earlier last century. Until the 1930s the population may have numbered over 250 000. Records indicate major population decline during the first half of last century and therefore called for a quick management action. The population decline was thought to be caused by over-hunting and habitat change caused by an increase in water levels in the swamps. Aerial surveys during the 1950s suggested less than 20000 and by 1970 only 16 000 lechwe were counted from the air. From 1988-1996, ground surveys were undertaken with a four-wheel drive vehicle, on motor bike and on foot. A series of aerial censuses was also conducted during October, at the height of the dry season when the lechwe are relatively evenly distributed in the swamps, thus facilitating the use of stratified random sampling method. A fixed wing cessina 182 was used throughout the surveys. The study revealed that black lechwe is a highly prolific and resilient species. Its population has great potential to increase if given adequate protection and proper managed. Mating takes place on shallow flood-plains between November and April, but peaks in March. Receptive females leave their herds to join small breeding ground comprising few dominant males, which may be likened to leks formed by some other antelopes. The population of lechwe is currently maintained around 30,000. The sex ratio of the species is equal to unity and the age ratio was estimated at 3 : 1. The entire Bangweulu wetlands can sustain a population of at least 160 000 lechwe. A sustainable off-take of 6 000 individuals per annum was recommended. Black lechwe being an endemic species to the Bangweulu Basin is important for the economy of the country and the rural population. The study has revealed that local people are keen to participate in conserving it together with other species and the habitat as long as they are clear about benefits that they will gain from their effort. / Dissertation (MSc (Wildlife Management))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Centre for Wildlife Management / unrestricted

The differing objectives of the public in managing and using both wildlife habitat and the wildlife resource create problems for wildlife managers who must find socially acceptable solutions. How should the resource be allocated among alternative uses such as hunting and observation? Should particular species be given priority in the management of the wildlife resource and, if so, which ones? What tradeoffs should be made to arrive at solutions which appropriately reflect the public's legitimate interest and concern with the management of this resource? The purpose of this study is to evaluate the performance of the management system established as a means of arriving at socially acceptable solutions in the management of wildlife at the Pitt Wildlife Management Area (PWMA). The study focuses on the effectiveness of the PWMA Advisory Committee as a forum for incorporating public input into policy and management decisions at the PWMA. While the "Proposed Wetlands Policy" for the Provincial Government calls for the establishment of public advisory committees, the PWMA Advisory Committee is the first public advisory committee established in B.C. for the purpose of advising the F&WB on issues relating to wildlife management in a specific area. Normative criteria have been derived for evaluating the performance of an ideal process for wildlife management decision-making. These criteria follow logically from social values inherent in a liberal democratic system. A basic assumption behind these criteria is that socially acceptable solutions can be elicited through a process which reflects social values. The normative criteria used for evaluating the decision-making process are: (1) all interests affected by decisions should be represented; (2) decisions should be based on adequate information; (3) interaction should take place among participants; (4) participants' efforts should be of value; and (5) the system should be efficient. This study documents the planning process for four issues pertaining to the PWMA - the formation of a management plan, the allocation of a Sandhill Crane reserve, the waterfowl hunting policy, and the formation of a recreation plan. The PWMA Advisory Committee has opened up the wildlife management decision process a great deal. However, the results of the evaluation indicate a number of weaknesses in the process. Representation of Legitimate Interests; Four categories of interests affected by the management of the PWMA were identified: those who use the PWMA, those who do not regularly use the area but are interested in enhancing wildlife populations in the area, those who don't use the area but are interested in preserving the diversity of wildlife species, and those affected by the external effects of managing the area. The evaluation revealed that a good cross-section of interests is represented on the committee except for those interested in certain recreational uses of the area. Five stages of a typical resource allocation process include issue formulation, plan conceptualization, evaluation, decision-making, and implementation. In order for affected interests to be adequately represented, they must be able to participate at all stages of the process. This has not been the case with the Advisory Committee. Because of the general lack of a systematic process, none of the interests have been well represented in the planning process for all issues. Adequacy of Information: Alternative planning and management strategies were not generated for most issues. In fact, for the most controversial issue (pertaining to the hunting regime), no alternatives were formally discussed for either of the two changes which were made. Because of the absence of management alternatives, very little information has been produced for evaluating management strategies. Interaction: Bargaining is a common method for resolving differences. Although the F&WB has encouraged debate among committee members, very little bargaining or compromise has occurred on issues where differences of opinion have existed. This appears to be related to the absence of many of the planning stages at which bargaining could have taken place. All government agencies have shown co-operation in their willingness to discuss issues of concern to the public interest groups. Effectiveness: Almost every public interest group qualified the extent to which their participation had been of value to the planning process.. Most of these members felt that, on at least one issue, their contribution was disregarded or that they were not given adequate opportunity to participate. Efficiency: All government agencies indicated that the time and resources spent on committee activities were very productive. The evaluation has indicated that there are a number of weaknesses in the management system as revealed by the planning process. The following recommendations are made to strengthen the process in terms of the normative elements of the decisionmaking process and in light of theories of political-administrative behavior: (1) There should be better representation by public groups affected by recreational developments at the PWMA; (2) There should be structural changes to the management system involving a long-range plan which is updated annually, the production of annual plans which coincide with the F&WB budgetary process, and the establishment of a budget for the management of the PWMA; and (3) There should be rule changes in the terms of reference of the Advisory Committee which would ensure the production of detailed agendas, information and problem statements regarding the most important items on the agendas, alternative solutions in the resolution of all issues, and information pertaining to the consequences of alternatives. If the operation of the PWMA Advisory Committee is reorganized to incorporate these recommendations, this management system should serve as a useful model for public involvement in wildlife management in other areas of B.C. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

I studied aspects of fisher (Martes pennanti) population ecology on the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation in northern California to fill critical information gaps relative to timber management and its effect on the status of fishers, a candidate for listing under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. A decline in mark-resight density estimates of fishers from 1998 (52/100 km2; 95% CI = 43–64) to 2005 (14/100 km2; 13–16) was likely due to changes in prey habitat suitability, increased predation pressure, and/or disease. The decline was also indicated by catch-per-unit effort indices, but not by camera station or track-plate station indices. Colleagues and I developed and tested methods of collecting mark-recapture data using genetic marking, passive integrated transponder (PIT) tag technology, and digital, passive-infrared photography that could be used in a demographic monitoring protocol. The comparatively high cost of PIT tag reading equipment and genetic analyses makes the use these methods dramatically more expensive and yield less demographic data compared to using a traditional mark-recapture approach using only live trapping. By monitoring 40 radio-marked, breeding age (≥ 2 years old) females during 2005–2011, we found that 87% exhibited denning behavior and 65% of these were successful in weaning at least one kit (mean = 1.9). Of 14 kits radio-marked in their first fall, 3 died prior to dispersal, 3 lost collars, and the other 8 established home ranges 0.8–18.0 km away from natal areas. Nipple size (width multiplied by height of the largest anterior nipple), evaluated as a predictive index of female fisher reproductive success, differed among nonbreeders vs. attempted and current breeders. A predictive index for use in assigning reproductive status to females with unknown reproductive histories had an overall correct classification rate of 81% and a chance-corrected measure of prediction of 69.5%. These results illustrate the value in establishing long-term, accurate programs to monitor populations of imperiled species which strive to determine cause and affect relationships to changes in populations and ultimately, modeling habitat fitness. The relatively low reproductive rate of female fishers brings into question the species ability to demographically respond to increased rates of juvenile and adult mortality with increased reproduction and/or survival. The limited dispersal capability of juvenile fishers restricts ability to rescue vanishing local populations from extirpation, re-inhabit landscapes from which they were previously extirpated, and establish the functional connectivity of metapopulations.

abstract: Land use change driven by human population expansion continues to influence the integrity and configuration of riparian corridors worldwide. Wildlife viability in semi-arid regions depend heavily on the connectivity of riparian corridors, since water is the primary limiting resource. The Madrean Archipelago in northern Mexico and southwestern United States (US) is a biodiversity hotspot that supports imperiled wildlife like jaguar (Panthera onca) and ocelot (Leopardus pardalis). Recent and ongoing infrastructure developments in the historically understudied US-México borderlands region, such as the border wall and expansion of Federal Highway 2, are altering wildlife movement and disconnecting essential habitat. I used wildlife cameras to assess species occupancy, abundance, and related habitat variables affecting the use of washes as corridors for mammals in semi-arid Los Ojos (LO), a private ranch within a 530 km2 priority conservation area in Sonora, México located south of the border and Federal Highway 2. From October 2018 to April 2019, I deployed 21 wildlife cameras in five different riparian corridors within LO. I used single- season occupancy models and Royal Nichols abundance models to explore the relationship between habitat variables and use of riparian corridors by mammal communities of conservation concern within this region. Twenty-one mammal species were recorded in the study area, including American black bear (Ursus americanus), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and the first sighting of jaguar (Panthera onca) in this region in 25 years. For the 11 medium- and large-bodied mammals recorded, habitat variables related to perennial river characteristics (distance to river, weekly water, and site width) and remoteness (distance from highway, elevation, and NDVI) were important for occupancy, but the direction of the relationship varied by species. For commonly observed species such as mountain lion (Puma concolor) and white-nosed coati (Nasua narica), topographic variety was highly informative for species abundance. These results highlight the importance of habitat diversity when identifying corridors for future protection to conserve wildlife communities in semi-arid regions. Additionally, this study provides robust evidence in support of mitigation measures (e.g. funnel fencing, over- or under- passes) along Federal Highway 2, and other barriers such as the border wall, to facilitate wildlife connectivity. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Biology 2020

In early 1994 the United States Department of Agriculture’s Animal Damage Control agency implemented a directive providing guidance to help avoid competition between themselves and private businesses, known as Wildlife Control Operators (WCOs) engaging in similar work. Nearly two decades later some WCOs still complain about having to compete with the Animal Damage Control agency, now named Wildlife Services. Other businesses report enjoying a cooperative relationship with the agency. I analyzed four policies that regulate competition between Wildlife Services and WCOs and found that there is a good amount of guidance given to Wildlife Services in regards to their competitive relationship with WCOs. These guidelines do not carry the force of law, however, and are subject to change and deletion. I conducted interviews with representatives from the WCO community and Wildlife Services and found that the top four factors contributing to conflict are an overlap in similar services, agency advantages, money and pricing, and policy. The top four factors contributing to cooperation were cooperative work, communication, clarified roles, and training and education. Working to decrease the conflict factors and emphasize the cooperative factors will lead to a better relationship between Wildlife Services and WCOs.

No description available.

The success of state fish and wildlife agency conservation efforts depends highly on their engagement with wildlife recreationists, ranging from those with consumptive (i.e., hunters and anglers) to nonconsumptive (i.e., birders, wildlife viewers) interests. However, declines in their historic constituent base of consumptive recreationists, coupled with an increasingly diverse and interconnected group of nonconsumptive recreationists, has placed new pressures on state fish and wildlife agencies. Human dimensions research into recreationists' behaviors and perceptions can help these agencies determine how best to serve and involve wildlife recreationists, including developing services that fit their interests, engaging them in conservation activities, and providing them with a suite of funding and support mechanisms to contribute to conservation. Developing this understanding can be complicated though, due to the range of behaviors and perceptions wildlife recreationists have regarding conservation and the role of state fish and wildlife agencies. Given this need to better understand how state fish and wildlife agencies can successfully engage their growing and changing wildlife recreation constituency in order to advance conservation, we investigated the perceptions, behaviors, and interactions of Virginia wildlife recreationists relative to the state fish and wildlife agency, the Virginia Department of Wildlife Resources (DWR). Using a mixed-methods research design, we first looked into the intersection of wildlife recreation identities, to gain a clearer understanding about the implications of individuals who identify as multiple types of recreationists (i.e., consumptive-only, nonconsumptive-only, consumptive-viewers, and comprehensive recreationists). We also used recreation identity to explore how participation in conservation behaviors differs among recreationists. Next, to compare findings from our focus groups and survey, we explored how wildlife recreationist groups (i.e., birders or viewers, hunters or anglers, and multi-recreationists) felt served by a state fish and wildlife agency relative to agency services received by other recreation groups. Lasty, we investigated how recreation groups and level of familiarity with DWR predicted recreationists' future likelihood to financially contribute to the agency via voluntary and user-pay funding mechanisms. Our results highlight the opportunity that wildlife recreationists present for the future success of state fish and wildlife agencies, and the complex conservation challenges these agencies face in engaging with their growing and changing recreation constituencies. Wildlife recreationists are multidimensional in their recreational pursuits, and differ in their familiarity with and perceptions of state fish and wildlife agencies, which has implications for their future support of these agencies. Our findings illustrate the need for state fish and wildlife agencies to develop engagement strategies that provide multiple entry points into and interests in their conservation programs, while also working to enhance agency familiarity among nonconsumptive recreationists, and ensuring that all wildlife recreation groups feel valued in relation to one another. / Doctor of Philosophy / State fish and wildlife agencies play a critical role in the conservation and management of wildlife and their habitats in North America. To successfully carry out their conservation and management goals, state fish and wildlife agencies rely on support from the general public. Specifically, people who view and harvest wildlife provide valuable support to these agencies, in the form of funding, participating in conservation programs, reporting wildlife sightings, and providing wildlife habitat. However, groups like hunters and anglers are declining in participation levels, while groups like birders and other wildlife viewers are growing in number. The changing levels of participation in these groups may consequently place new expectations on state fish and wildlife agencies. Gaining a deeper understanding of recreationists' behaviors and thoughts can help state fish and wildlife agencies determine how best to serve and engage these groups. We used focus groups and a survey to explore whether people view themselves as participating in and as being a member of multiple wildlife recreation activities and how that may affect their participation in conservation. Next, we explored how different wildlife recreation groups view the level of services they receive from a state fish and wildlife agency compared to what they believe others receive from the agency. Lasty, we studied how the level of familiarity recreation groups had in a state fish and wildlife agency influenced their future likelihood to financially support the agency. Our results highlight the important role that people who view and harvest wildlife have in the future success of state fish and wildlife agency conservation efforts. Many people view themselves as being a member of multiple wildlife-oriented activities, which can influence their familiarity with and thoughts of state fish and wildlife agencies, and has implications for their future support of these agencies. Our findings suggest the need for state fish and wildlife agencies to develop engagement strategies that provide multiple opportunities for people of different wildlife interests to participate in conservation, while also working to enhance agency awareness among wildlife viewers and ensuring these groups feel valued in relation to one another.

<p> More than 1,400 golf facilities in the United States have closed permanently since 2001, part of a natural supply correction, as well as a reflection of the fluctuating interest in the game. Through their design, golf courses inherently preserve a singular form of open, green space. In their most dynamic form, they are culturally integral landscapes with vibrant ecosystems that provide wildlife habitat. They represent some of the largest &lsquo;undeveloped&rsquo; spaces in United States&rsquo; cities. Each golf course closing represents a single patch of many that, with sound design, could be woven together through a common purpose, like a landscape quilt. Through a site-specific analysis, the resulting design proposal for Wakefield Wildlife Reservation is a new type of landscape for the city of Westminster, MD, serving as an example for future projects. It will provide valuable habitat and dynamic recreational space, while expressing site and regional history.</p>