The cross-sectional geometry of an insect wing has historically been simplified to a rectangular, elliptic, or having a streamlined airfoil shape. Up until this point, no analysis has utilized a morphologically accurate insect wing. As such, there remains significant questions as to whether or not there are aerodynamic benefits to the wing vein structure accompanying the already known structural improvements. The present study uses a bumblebee specimen (Bombus pensylvanicus) acquired by the author, scanned using a skyscan microCT scanner, and post-processed for computational analysis. The resulting geometry captures the naturally occurring vein structures present in the bee wing and is used to better understand aerodynamic effects of biological corrugation. The aerodynamics associated with a morphologically accurate bee wing geometry are explored in two and three dimensions for the first time. Multiple methodologies are validated with experimental results presented in the literature to capture the fluid dynamics in two dimensions including the Lattice-Boltzmann method and unstructured dynamic remeshing using a Navier-Stokes approach. The effects of wing cross-section are compared first with common geometries used in the literature in two dimensions and then between cross-sections extracted at different locations along the wing span. A three-dimensional methodology is validated and used to compare the true bee wing with one using a rectangular cross-section in symmetric hovering. The influence of spanwise cross-section is revisited in three dimensions and compared to the results found in two-dimensions for the same kinematics in forward flight. The final focus of the dissertation is the first simulation of a morphologically accurate wing using kinematics described in the literature. / PHD

Selection pressure is a constant force in evolution, pushing birds and their wings towards an optimal shape and structure, were increasing performance, and minimizing the costs is central. But even though the science of aerodynamics can provide calculations of the optimal construction for the wing in different situations this rarely directly correspond to what is observed in nature. Since the optima are not the same for all birds due to different specifications and ecology this optimum becomes harder to determine and different functions can even have different optima, resulting in selection conflict. In the genius of birds there is an immense variation between species and their wings in everything from size, shape, and function.  The aim of this study is to investigate how wing morphology over a large phylogeny of bird species correlates to migration and habitat/ecology. Many studies have been done focusing on the effect of migration on the wing morphology, and some have been done focusing on other parameters such as display or daily usage. But by including the bird’s ecology and habitat related information with migration and morphology and looking at the selection from a broad perspective, can we uncover something more? The morphology of the wing cannot provide a perfect optimum for all circumstances since they require different specifications. What then, has the largest impact on the wing’s morphology? And does the relative length of the tail provide any correlations with its habitat and performance?  1185 birds of 137 species were caught at Ottenby, Öland and information on age, weight, sex, and tail length was collected for each individual bird. Photographs were taken of the back of the bird with the left wing outstretched 90 degrees from the body and analyzed in ImageJ to calculate aspect ratio and wing loading. Data on migration distance, foraging behavior, diet, and habitat density was then added for each of the species. Mean values of all parameters was calculated on species level creating a strong dataset with 137 data points. The species mean values dataset was used to test the interspecific effects and the dataset with all individuals was used to test intraspecific effects. ANOVAs, ANCOVAs, correlations tests and random slopes mixed models were performed revealing significant connections between wing morphology, migration, and habitat density. Correlations could also be observed between wing morphology, diet, and foraging behavior. Habitat density revealed the highest correlation with wing morphology, demonstrating a greater significance than migration and the other parameters. Effects that at first sight looked significant could later be excluded as they turned out to be dependent on other variables. The study therefore also highlights the importance of including alternative parameters for reliable conclusions.