Orientador: Edson Luiz Furtado / Banca: Marli Teixeira de Almeida Minhoni / Banca: Claudio Angeli Sansígolo / Banca: Waldir Cintra de Jesus Junior / Banca: Celso Garcia Auer / Resumo: Em três povoamentos de Eucalyptus grandis na região norte do Estado de São Paulo, foi realizado um estudo com objetivo de conhecer a dinâmica espaço-temporal do cancro basal, quantificar os danos no volume e efeito na qualidade da madeira. Foram instaladas nove parcelas de 7500 m², com 1000 árvores de E. grandis, procedência Santa Rita do P. Quatro-SP, origem Coffs Harbour, dos plantios seminais em solos de areia franca AQ1, AQ3 (10 a 15% de argila) e textura franco-argila-arenosa LEm2 (26 a 35% de argila). As avaliações foram realizadas em nove mil árvores com idade de dois anos. A incidência foi monitorada individualmente de acordo com a presença ou ausência da doença e a severidade, mediante o uso de uma escala diagramática de notas. Foram feitas avaliações nos anos 2000, 2001 e 2002, o que gerou 26 mapas de evolução da doença. Os resultados permitiram concluir que: (1) A incidência média do cancro basal foi influenciado pelo tipo de solo AQ3 (0,25%), AQ1 (0,21%) e LEm2 (0,09%); (2) Os valores do índice de dispersão (ID) foram > 1, para os tamanhos de quadrat 2x4, 5x2, 5x4 e 5x10; os valores de log (A) = log (Vobs) e log de (b) = log (Vbin) foram maiores que 1 e diferentes de zero, sugerindo uma tendência à agregação independente do tipo de solo; (3) 54,6% dos focos foram unitários, indicando que o cancro basal inicia-se com focos de apenas uma árvore; 80,8% dos focos apresentam maior comprimento na direção entre as linhas de plantio do que na direção da linha; focos maiores ocorreram no solo AQ3, que apresentaram-se menos compactos; a disseminação do cancro nesses povoamentos parece ter sido via sementes através das mudas; 89,1% dos mapas apresentaram focos com tamanho médio inferior a 10 árvores, no solo AQ3 em 10,9% dos focos o tamanho variou entre 11 a 30 árvores e nenhum foco foi formado acima de 30 árvores;...(Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: A study was carried out in three Eucalyptus grandis stands in the northern region of the State of São Paulo, in order to provide information on the spatio-temporal dynamics of eucalyptus canker, evaluate volume losses, and determine the effect of the disease on wood quality. Nine 7500 m² plots (10×100) containing 1000 E. grandis trees from Santa Rita do P. Quatro-SP (origin: Coffs Harbour), in seed plantations on soils classified as loamy sands, AQ1 and AQ3 (10 to 15% clay), and on a silty-clay-loam-textured soil, LEm2 (26 - 35% clay). Evaluations were made in nine thousand two-year-old trees. Incidence was monitored individually according to the presence or absence of the disease. Severity was evaluated through the use of a diagrammatic rating scale. Evaluations were made in 2000, 2001, and 2002, and 26 disease progress maps were generated. The results allowed us to conclude that: (1) The mean incidence of eucalyptus canker followed a trend that matched the soil types:AQ3 (0.25%), AQ1(0.21.%), and LEm2 (0.09%); (2) The ID values were > 1 for quadrat sizes equal to 2×4, 5×2, 5×4, and 5×10; The log (A) = log (Vobs) and log (b) = log (Vbin) values were higher than 1 and different from zero, suggesting a tendency for aggregation, regardless of soil type; (3) 54.6% of the foci were single-unit, indicating that eucalyptus canker starts with single-tree foci; 80.8% of the foci had greater lengths between planting rows than along the rows; larger foci occurred in the AQ3 soil, which were less compact; canker dissemination in those stands seemed to have occurred via seeds through the seedlings; 89.1% of the maps had foci with mean sizes smaller than 10 trees in the AQ3 soil; in 10.9% of the foci the size ranged between 11 and 30 trees, and no focus formed at sizes above 30 trees; the ICF and ICFNU values were not close nor very far from ...(Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Technology: Chemistry, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2015. / This thesis forms part of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Forestry and Forest Products Research Centre (CSIR-FFP) biorefinery project which aims at developing and implementing novel industrial processes production of cellulose textile fibres. The focus of this study is to investigate the dissolution of South African Eucalyptus raw (unbleached) and final (bleached) dissolving pulp and saw dust wood in an ionic liquid (IL) 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate [Emim][OAc] and the co-solvents [dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO)] or [dimethylformamide (DMF)] mixtures, to obtain regenerated cellulose by the further addition of water and acetone. The IL/co-solvent mixtures were able to dissolve the raw and final pulp samples at 120 ˚C for 6 hours whereas the sawdust wood dissolved in 10 hours. The IL/DMF mixture gave higher cellulose recoveries of 41.88 % for the raw pulp, 49.89 % for the final pulp sample and 32.50 % for sawdust wood while the IL/DMSO mixture gave a recovery of 15.25 % for the raw pulp sample, 36.25 % for the final pulp sample and 17.83 % for the sawdust wood sample. The regenerated cellulose materials were characterized by Fourier Transformer Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Thermo gravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Powder X-Ray Diffraction (pXRD), and compared with a standard microcrystalline of cellulose. It was observed that the FTIR and NMR spectra of the regenerated cellulose and MCC were similar which then indicates that no chemical reaction occurred during the dissolution and regeneration process of cellulose. SEM and X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of the results showed that after dissolution the cellulose I (native form), the crystalline structure was completely converted into cellulose II (amorphous) structure, and this was due to the removal of lignin and decrease in cellulose crystallinity. TGA results showed that the regenerated cellulose samples have higher char yields compared to the MCC which is due to the IL remaining in the regenerated cellulose. It was also observed that the addition of the co-solvents decreased the viscosity of the IL mixture, facilitating dissolution of the cellulose that led to additional swelling and reduction of the recalcitrant nature of the cellulose crystalline structure and intermolecular interactions. This led to increased accessibility and dissolution of the cellulose. The findings in this study have the potential to bring ILs closer to applications for biomass technology in particular for an economically viable dissolution method for biomass because ILs have a benefit of being easily separated from the anti-solvent, which provides a simple solution for IL recycle ability and re-use. The novel aspect of this study is: . This is the first study in the South African context to examine the influence of the lignin on the dissolution and regeneration of Eucalyptus sawdust wood and dissolving pulp. / D

O presente trabalho teve por objetivo estudar a influência da carga alcalina no processo de polpação kraft modificado Lo-SolidsÒ para madeiras de eucalipto, considerando parâmetros como rendimento, teor de rejeitos, geração de sólidos e características da polpa tais como número kappa, viscosidade, composição polissacarídica e morfologia de fibras. Híbridos de E. grandis x E. urophylla com 7 anos e densidade básica de 500 e 560kg/m 3 foram avaliados e os cozimentos Lo-Solidsâ foram realizadas aplicando-se álcali ativo (como Na2O) de 13%, 15%, 17%, 19%, 21%, 23%, 25%, 27% e sulfidez de 30%. O delineamento experimental adotado foi o inteiramente casualizado. Os resultados obtidos indicam que variando a carga alcalina no processo de polpação é possível obter polpa não branqueada apresentando valores de kappa de 8 a 30, rendimento depurado de 46 a 53%, viscosidade de 10 a 80 cP, solubilidade em NaOH 5% (S5) de 7 a 13%, teor de pentosanas de 11 a 16% e ácidos hexenurônicos de 10 a 65 µ mol/g. O aumento da carga alcalina nos cozimentos proporcionou maior geração de finos e, consequentemente, menor comprimento médio ponderado de fibras e espessura de parede. Embora os materiais estudados apresentassem diferentes densidade básica, os resultados de polpação foram semelhantes indicando que ambas matérias-primas podem ser empregadas na obtenção de polpa celulósica utilizando o processo de cozimento Lo-Solids®, o qual não se mostrou sensível a densidade básica, o que possivelmente está associado a boa impregnação dos cavacos correspondente à etapa de impregnação. O híbrido de maior densidade produziu polpa com fibras de maior espessura de parede, maior coarseness e menor número de fibras por grama que o híbrido de menor densidade básica. As análises do licor negro mostraram que o de pH, o álcali efetivo residual e o teor de sólidos dissolvidos apresentam maiores valores para dosagens de álcali também superiores, porém observa-se um perfil uniforme para essas variáveis, evidenciando a homogeneidade do processo de polpação Lo-SolidsÒ. / The main objective of this work was to study the influence of the alkali charge on Lo-Solidsâ modified kraft pulping process for eucalyptus, considering parameters as yield, rejects content, total dissolved solids materials and the pulp characteristics as kappa number, viscosity, carbohydrate composition and fibers dimensions. Woods from hybrids of Eucalyptus grandis x Eucalyptus urophylla 7 years old and presented basic density of 0,499 and 0,559g/cm 3 were evaluated and the pulping process was conducted applying active alkali charge (as Na2O) of 13%, 15%, 17%, 19%, 21%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 27% and sulfidity of 30%. The results showed that varying the alkali charge is possible to obtain unbleached pulp with kappa number from 8 to 30, pulp yield from 46 to 53%, viscosity from 10 to 80cP, alkali solubility (S5) from 7 to 13%, pentosans content from 11 to 16% and hexenuronic acids content from 10 to 65µmol/g. It was verified that the higher is the alkali charge the higher is the fines generation leading to a decreased of fiber length and the cell wall thickness. Although the hybrids studied presented different wood basic density, the pulping results obtained were not different showing that both raw-materials could be used to pulp production with Lo-SolidsÒ pulping process, which seems not to be so affect by wood basic density. The pulp obtained from hybrid with higher basic density showed higher cell wall thickness, higher fiber coarseness and lower number of fibers per gram than the hybrid with lower basic density. The analysis of black liquor showed that the pH, the effective residual alkali and the total dissolved solids materials increased when the alkali charge applied is higher too, however a uniform profile is noted for these variables, showing the homogeneity of Lo-SolidsÒ pulping process.

The search for alternatives to the fossil-based products has dramatically surged during past few decades primarily due to the problems associated with the scarcity of these sources and global environmental concerns. Among those many alternatives, exploitation of cellulose, as a raw material to develop novel products has been a constant attempt since it has never lost its both economic and industrial impact. Cellulose is known for its significant contribution as a raw material and as a fascinating sustainable macromolecule, which exhibits wide availability and versatile chemical reactivity to discover novel derivatives for broad range of applications. Conversion of cellulose C2/C3 secondary hydroxyl groups to dialdehyde groups in the presence of periodate is an extremely useful method for regioselective oxidation of cellulose and to activate the polymer for further derivatization. This thesis is primarily focused on synthesis and characterization of wide range of cellulose derivatives exploiting facile periodate oxidation methodology. The first study investigated the use of periodate oxidation as a potential method to synthesize a novel water soluble derivative of cellulose from bleached hardwood Kraft pulp. The work focused on the effect of periodate oxidation and sulfonation reaction on water solubility, morphology and structure of cellulose fibers. The results showed a significant increase in water solubility (2.85 -28.5 g/L) and complete change in surface morphology of the fibers due to the introduction of sulfonic acid groups. In the second study, the same reaction scheme was employed on bead cellulose to prepare anionic 2,3-disulfonated beads. Due to the presence of negatively charged sulfonic acid groups, the beads were found to be agglomerated in presence of cationic starch, exhibiting their future application in chromatographic separation. In the third study, model primary amine compounds such as methyl and butyl amines were grafted to nanowhisker surfaces following periodate oxidation and reductive amination. Then, based on the grafting procedure, in the following study, gamma aminobutyric acid (spacer) and syringyl alcohol (linker) was attached to periodate oxidized nanowhiskers to synthesize a novel drug delivery system. The final study investigated the application of periodate oxidized nanowhiskers as chemical cross-linkers to stabilize gelatin gels. It was concluded that the chemical cross-linking has a significant effect on relative increase in percentage of rigid protons, reduced water uptake ability and reduced pore size of the gels. Not only did the chemical cross-linking improve the storage modulus of the gels (150%) and but it also increased the thermal resistance until 50 oC.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / The Acacia mearnsii De Wild. is widely cultivate for the tannin extraction of its bark, while the wood, exported to the Asian countries, can be converted in cellulosic pulp. Although the efficiency of this wood on pulping is proved, in Brazil the specie is rarely used for this purpose. Thus, the aim of this work was to characterize technologically the Acacia mearnsii wood, trough chemical, anatomical and basic density analysis, and evaluate the cellulosic pulp quality, produced by the kraft process. It was collected ten trees, five from a seed production area (APS) and five from clonal plantations, which were felled and divided in discs and prepared in accordance with TAPPI T264 om-88 standart. The basic density was performed in accordance with NBR 11941 (2003) standart, and the wood description was set trough the preparation of histological slides and of macerated, according to Burger and Richter (1991) and by the nitric-acetic method, respectively, followed by anatomical measurements on microscope. It was performed quantitative analysis of the chemical components, besides the syringyl/guaiacyl ratio and the total carbohydrates content by high efficiency liquid chromatography. The kraft pulps were carried out only in APS chips, keeping constant the time, sulfidity and the temperature of cooking, changing just the active alkali charge, which ranged from 14 to 24%. In cellulosic pulps, it was evaluated the yields, kappa number and rejects content, besides the analysis of solid content in black liquor. The basic density results showed that Acacia mearnsii wood from APS and clones did not presented significant difference, with values of, approximately 0,544g/cm³. In wood description, the anatomical elements presented values much similar to the genre Eucalyptus sp., with thin to thick wall fibers (± 3,3 μm) and anatomical indices indicating suitable fibers for paper production. The chemical analysis revealed an ashes content of, approximately 0,35%, total extractives of 4,5 to 4,8%, Klason lignin of 16,2 to 17,1%, holocellulose and alpha-cellulose of 76 to 77% and 46%, respectively. The glucose content was 51,7 and 49,7% for clone and APS, while the hemicelluloses (xylose, arabinose, mannose and galactose) totaled circa 19%. The S/G ratio was 2,69 and 2,93 in clone and APS, respectively. The pulps made with different charges of active alkali presented satisfatory yields and kappa numbers. The best pulping condition was obtained with active alkali of 14%, resulting in a screened yield of nearly 57%, kappa number of 16, rejects content of ± 0,2% and solids content of 12,7%. According with the results, the Acacia mearnsii wood presents a great potential as a source of short fibers in cellulosic pulp production. / A Acacia mearnsii De Wild. é amplamente cultivada para a extração de tanino de sua casca, enquanto que sua madeira, exportada para países asiáticos, pode ser convertida em polpa celulósica. Embora existam estudos que comprovem sua eficiência na polpação, no Brasil a espécie é pouco utilizada para este fim. Desta forma, o objetivo deste trabalho foi caracterizar tecnologicamente a madeira de Acacia mearnsii, através de análises químicas, anatômicas e de densidade básica, e avaliar a qualidade de sua polpa celulósica, produzida pelo processo kraft. Foram coletadas dez árvores, cinco provenientes de área de produção de sementes (APS) e cinco clones, que foram abatidas, seccionadas em discos e preparadas em amostras conforme a norma TAPPI T264 om-88. A densidade básica foi obtida de acordo com a norma NBR 11941 (2003), e a descrição do lenho foi determinada através da preparação de lâminas histológicas e de macerado conforme Burger e Richter (1991) e pelo método nítrico-acético, respectivamente, seguidas de medições anatômicas em microscópio. Foram realizadas análises químicas quantitativas, além da relação siringil/guaiacil e o teor de carboidratos totais por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência. Os cozimentos kraft foram realizados somente em cavacos de APS, mantendo-se constantes o tempo, a sulfidez e a temperatura, alterando apenas a carga de álcali ativo, que variou de 14 a 24%. Nas polpas celulósicas foram avaliados os rendimentos, o número kappa e o teor de rejeitos, além da análise de sólidos dissolvidos no licor negro. Os resultados de densidade básica mostram que a madeira de Acacia mearnsii de APS e clone não apresentam diferença significativa, com valor de aproximadamente 0,544 g/cm³. Com relação a descrição do lenho, os elementos anatômicos apresentaram valores muito próximos ao gênero Eucalyptus sp., com fibras de paredes finas (de ± 3,3 μm) e índices anatômicos indicando fibras adequadas para a produção de papéis. As análises químicas revelaram um teor de cinzas de aproximadamente 0,35%, extrativos totais de 4,5 a 4,8%, lignina Klason de 16,2 a 17,1%, holocelulose e alfa-celulose de 76 a 77% e 46%, respectivamente. O teor de glicose foi de 51,7 e 49,7% para clone e APS, enquanto que as hemiceluloses (xilose, arabinose, manose e galactose) somaram aproximadamente 19%. A relação S/G foi de 2,69 e 2,93 em clone e APS, respectivamente. As polpas produzidas com diferentes cargas de álcali ativo apresentaram rendimentos e número kappa satisfatórios. A melhor condição de polpação foi obtida com álcali ativo de 14%, resultando em um rendimento depurado de aproximadamente 57%, número kappa de 16, teor de rejeitos de ± 0,2% e teor de sólidos de 12,7%, valores utilizados pelas indústrias de celulose. De acordo com os resultados, a madeira de Acacia mearnsii apresenta grande potencial como fonte de fibras curtas na obtenção de polpa celulósica.

O presente trabalho teve por objetivo estudar a influência da carga alcalina no processo de polpação kraft modificado Lo-SolidsÒ para madeiras de eucalipto, considerando parâmetros como rendimento, teor de rejeitos, geração de sólidos e características da polpa tais como número kappa, viscosidade, composição polissacarídica e morfologia de fibras. Híbridos de E. grandis x E. urophylla com 7 anos e densidade básica de 500 e 560kg/m 3 foram avaliados e os cozimentos Lo-Solidsâ foram realizadas aplicando-se álcali ativo (como Na2O) de 13%, 15%, 17%, 19%, 21%, 23%, 25%, 27% e sulfidez de 30%. O delineamento experimental adotado foi o inteiramente casualizado. Os resultados obtidos indicam que variando a carga alcalina no processo de polpação é possível obter polpa não branqueada apresentando valores de kappa de 8 a 30, rendimento depurado de 46 a 53%, viscosidade de 10 a 80 cP, solubilidade em NaOH 5% (S5) de 7 a 13%, teor de pentosanas de 11 a 16% e ácidos hexenurônicos de 10 a 65 µ mol/g. O aumento da carga alcalina nos cozimentos proporcionou maior geração de finos e, consequentemente, menor comprimento médio ponderado de fibras e espessura de parede. Embora os materiais estudados apresentassem diferentes densidade básica, os resultados de polpação foram semelhantes indicando que ambas matérias-primas podem ser empregadas na obtenção de polpa celulósica utilizando o processo de cozimento Lo-Solids®, o qual não se mostrou sensível a densidade básica, o que possivelmente está associado a boa impregnação dos cavacos correspondente à etapa de impregnação. O híbrido de maior densidade produziu polpa com fibras de maior espessura de parede, maior coarseness e menor número de fibras por grama que o híbrido de menor densidade básica. As análises do licor negro mostraram que o de pH, o álcali efetivo residual e o teor de sólidos dissolvidos apresentam maiores valores para dosagens de álcali também superiores, porém observa-se um perfil uniforme para essas variáveis, evidenciando a homogeneidade do processo de polpação Lo-SolidsÒ. / The main objective of this work was to study the influence of the alkali charge on Lo-Solidsâ modified kraft pulping process for eucalyptus, considering parameters as yield, rejects content, total dissolved solids materials and the pulp characteristics as kappa number, viscosity, carbohydrate composition and fibers dimensions. Woods from hybrids of Eucalyptus grandis x Eucalyptus urophylla 7 years old and presented basic density of 0,499 and 0,559g/cm 3 were evaluated and the pulping process was conducted applying active alkali charge (as Na2O) of 13%, 15%, 17%, 19%, 21%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 27% and sulfidity of 30%. The results showed that varying the alkali charge is possible to obtain unbleached pulp with kappa number from 8 to 30, pulp yield from 46 to 53%, viscosity from 10 to 80cP, alkali solubility (S5) from 7 to 13%, pentosans content from 11 to 16% and hexenuronic acids content from 10 to 65µmol/g. It was verified that the higher is the alkali charge the higher is the fines generation leading to a decreased of fiber length and the cell wall thickness. Although the hybrids studied presented different wood basic density, the pulping results obtained were not different showing that both raw-materials could be used to pulp production with Lo-SolidsÒ pulping process, which seems not to be so affect by wood basic density. The pulp obtained from hybrid with higher basic density showed higher cell wall thickness, higher fiber coarseness and lower number of fibers per gram than the hybrid with lower basic density. The analysis of black liquor showed that the pH, the effective residual alkali and the total dissolved solids materials increased when the alkali charge applied is higher too, however a uniform profile is noted for these variables, showing the homogeneity of Lo-SolidsÒ pulping process.

To produce high quality paper, lignin should be removed from the pulp. Quantification of lignin concentrations using standard wet chemistry is accurate but time consuming and costly, thus not appropriate for a large number of samples. The ability of hyperspectral remote sensing to predict foliar lignin concentrations could be utilized to estimate wood lignin concentrations if meaningful relationships between wood and foliar chemistry are established. LAI (leaf area index) is a useful parameter that is incorporated into physiological models in forest assessment. Measuring LAI over vast areas is labour intensive and expensive; therefore, LAI has been correlated to vegetation indices using remote sensing. Broadband indices use average spectral information over broad bandwidths; therefore details on the characteristics of the forest canopy are compromised and averaged. Moreover, the broadband indices are known to be highly affected by soil background at low vegetation cover. The aim of this study is to determine foliar and wood lignin concentrations of Eucalyptus clones using hyperspectral lignin indices, and to estimate LAI of Eucalyptus clones from narrowband vegetation indices in Zululand, South Africa Twelve Eucalyptus compartments of ages between 6 and 9 years were selected and 5 trees were randomly sampled from each compartment. A Hyperion image was acquired within ten days of field sampling, SI and LAI measurements. Leaf samples were analyzed in the laboratory using the Klason method as per Tappi standards (Tappi, 1996-1997). Wood samples were analyzed for lignin concentrations using a NIRS (Near Infrared Spectroscopy) instrument. The results showed that there is no general model for predicting wood lignin concentrations from foliar lignin concentrations in Eucalyptus clones of ages between 6 and 9 years. Regression analysis performed for individual compartments and on compartments grouped according to age and SI showed that the relationship between wood and foliar lignin concentration is site and age specific. A Hyperion image was georeferenced and atmospherically corrected using ENVI FLAASH 4.2. The equation to calculate lignin indices for this study was: L1R= ~n5il: A'''''y . 1750 AI680 The relationship between the lignin index and laboratory-measured foliar lignin was significant with R2 = 0.79. This relationship was used to calculate imagepredicted foliar lignin concentrations. Firstly, the compartment specific equations were used to calculate predicted wood lignin concentrations from predicted foliar lignin concentrations. The relationship between the laboratorymeasured wood lignin concentrations and predicted wood lignin concentrations was significant with R2 = 0.91. Secondly, the age and site-specific equations were used to convert foliar lignin concentration to wood lignin concentrations. The wood lignin concentrations predicted from these equations were then compared to the laboratory-measured wood lignin concentrations using linear regression and the R2 was 0.79 with a p-value lower than 0.001. Two bands were used to calculate nine vegetation indices; one band from the near infrared (NIR) region and the other from the short wave infrared (SWIR). Correlations between the Vis and the LAI measurements were generated and . then evaluated to determine the most effective VI for estimating LAI of Eucalyptus plantations. All the results obtained were significant but the NU and MNU showed possible problems of saturation. The MNDVI*SR and SAVI*SR produced the most significant relationships with LAI with R2 values of 0.899 and 0.897 respectively. The standard error for both correlations was very low, at 0.080, and the p-value of 0.001. It was concluded that the Eucalyptus wood lignin concentrations can be predicted using hyperspectral remote sensing, hence wood and foliar lignin concentrations can be fairly accurately mapped across compartments. LAI significantly correlated to eight of the nine selected vegetation indices. Seven Vis are more suitable for LAI estimations in the Eucalyptus plantations in Zululand. The NU and MNU can only be used for LAI estimations in arid or semi-arid areas. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.