Rural subsistence farming practices are the primary agricultural activity in northeastern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Cattle in this area have long been affected by tsetse-borne trypanosome infections. The causative organism, Trypanosoma brucei brucei was first identified by Bruce in the late 1800’s. Approximately 120000 cattle fall within a tsetse (Glossina austeni and Glossina brevipalpis) belt common to Mozambique and South Africa. Between 1991 and 1994 cattle in this area were treated with homidium bromide, and dipped with cyhalothrin, in an attempt to control trypanosomosis. No control measures have been implemented since 1994, however, and trypanosomosis re-emerged as a threat to animal health. In order to determine the optimum control measure available, a longitudinal incidence study was conducted to evaluate three possible control options. Four sentinel herds were selected from populations exposed to similar trypanosome challenges. The baseline trypanosome incidence rate was determined for each herd, after which each herd was subjected to a different trypanosome control measure. Two of the herds were subjected to topical pyrethroid treatment (Cyfluthrin pour-on and Flumethrin plunge-dip) as vector-control measures, one herd was treated 6 weekly with an injectable trypanocidal drug (isometamidium hydrochloride), and one herd served as an untreated control group. Monthly incidence rates were determined using the ‘dark-ground buffy smear technique’. The monthly incidence rates were standardized in order to account for variation in trypanosomosis challenge between the 4 herds. The standardized rates were then compared and the impact of the control strategies was quantified using the Area Under The Curve method. The cost efficacy of each control strategy was evaluated based on a partial budget system. Both the cyfluthrin pour-on and the injectable trypanocide were cost effective and had a dramatic trypanosomosis control effect with the pour-on having the greater impact/ control. The flumethrin plunge-dip displayed moderate trypanosomosis control properties, but proved not to be cost effective. / Dissertation (MSc (Veterinary Science))--University of Pretoria, 2004. / Production Animal Studies / unrestricted

The addition of prostatic fluid to intravaginally inseminated frozen-thawed semen resulted in an increase in pregnancy rate in bitches when compared with frozen-thawed semen inseminated on its own (Nöthling and Volkmann, 1993). However, the volume and viscosity of the inseminates varied greatly, which may have caused the improvement in fertility. Sperm TALP is a sperm-friendly fluid used extensively inin vitro processes. It was modified to exclude albumin to avoid any potentially beneficial effect. Twenty-eight young, healthy German shepherd bitches were inseminated with frozen-thawed semen to which either prostatic fluid (Group P) or albumin-free TALP (Group T) was added to provide an insemination volume of 7 ml. All bitches were inseminated daily from the onset of the appearance of shrunken angular folds on vaginoscopic evaluation until the day prior to diestrus as confirmed by cytological evaluation. Approximately 50 million progressively motile sperm was used per insemination. The semen was inseminated intravaginally after the addition of the appropriate fluid. Bitches were spayed 3 weeks after the onset of dioestrus and the number of conceptuses and corpora lutea counted. The non-resorbed conceptuses were taken as the litter size. The number of corpora lutea did not differ between the groups (n=25, P=0.496). The pregnancy rate between the groups did not differ. Among pregnant bitches, Group P (n=13) had significantly higher litter sizes than Group T (n=12) (P = 0.036). For the 13 bitches that received prostatic fluid, there were 139 corpora lutea and 80 conceptuses whereas, for the 12 bitches that received albumin-free TALP, there were 117 corpora lutea and 44 conceptuses (Chi-squared, P=0.002). Prostatic fluid has a positive influence on the fertility of frozen-thawed sperm more than by merely increasing the volume or decreasing the viscosity of the inseminate. The exact mechanism of its influence remains unknown. / Dissertation (MMedVet (Gyn))--University of Pretoria, 2002. / Production Animal Studies / unrestricted

The objective of this research project was to evaluate the clinical effect of Dimethyl sulphoxide in the symptomatic treatment of sheep suffering from heartwater caused by lichia ruminantiumforrmerly Cowdria ruminantium). 32 Merino crossbred sheep were used of which, 16 were infected with heartwater and 16 were control animals. Of the 16 sheep infected with heartwater, 8 were treated with a 10% solution of DMSO in polyionic fluid at the dose rate of 1g/kg twice daily for three consecutive days. Treatment was initiated two days after the onset of clinical disease. Eight of the control sheep were treated with DMSO following the same protocol. The remaining 8 infected and 8 not infected sheep were given similar volumes of polyionic fluid as placebo treatment. Arterial and venous blood samples for blood gas, haematocrit and total plasma protein measurement were collected daily from 5 days before, to 7 days following the onset of clinical disease. Gross pathological findings and cytological confirmation of the disease were recorded for the 16 infected sheep. The infected sheep treated with DMSO were able to maintain pulmonary gas exchange, had reduced pleural effusion and plasma protein loss compared to the untreated infected sheep that became hypoxic, developed severe pleural effusion and plasma protein loss. However, the infected sheep treated with DMSO developed a mild uncompensated metabolic acidosis. Non-infected sheep treated with DMSO showed reduced appetite while non-infected untreated sheep remained normal. The reduction in pleural effusion, maintenance of gaseous exchange and plasma protein levels, as a result of the use of DMSO in the symptomatic treatment of sheep suffering from heartwater, are considered beneficial. / Dissertation (MMedVet (Med))--University of Pretoria, 2002. / Production Animal Studies / unrestricted

The South African agricultural sector has experienced a long history of state intervention. In the past decade, the marketing of agricultural products has been transformed from a highly regulated to an essentially free dispensation. South African agriculture is now exposed to an uncertain environment that is influenced by the dynamic changes in the world economy. The dynamic environment in which producers of agricultural products operate urges the need to understand the production and consumption patterns of the products that they produce. South Africa does not have a modelling system in place that can simulate the impact of economic policies and exogenous changes on commodity markets. The general objective of this dissertation is to analyse the structure of the South African wheat market using economic theory and econometric modelling techniques. The specific objectives are to make baseline projections regarding the supply and use of wheat in South Africa and to analyse the impacts of various policy alternatives on the wheat sector for the period 2002 to 2008. The convenient and efficient methodology developed by the Food and Agricultural Policy Research Institute (FAPRI) for conducting policy analysis research, is particularly pertinent to this study and hence underpins the approach used for modelling the market and policy alternatives for the South African wheat sector. Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) is used to estimate single equations, which are collapsed into one system and estimated simultaneously using the Two-Stage-Least-Squares (2SLS) modelling technique. After the validation of the model’s performance, it is used to make baseline projections for the South African wheat sector during the period 2002 to 2008. In order to establish a baseline, a number of assumptions are made, relating to agricultural policies, the macroeconomic environment, and weather conditions. In the final part of this study, the constructed model is used to simulate the impacts of changes in policies, world markets and the production environment on domestic prices as well as levels of demand and supply. Three scenarios are analysed, the elimination of the import tariff for wheat, a twelve percent depreciation in the exchange rate, and the convergence of the elimination of the import tariff and the 12% depreciation in the exchange rate. Although the model developed in this dissertation is for a South African specific case study and therefore, contributes significantly to the understanding of the South African wheat market, it also highlights a number of shortcomings in the structure, relevance and applicability of such models, that need to be considered and addressed. The first of which is that the model structure is based on the level of knowledge, understanding, and perception that the modeller has of the sector; therefore, the basic structure of the model could be bias. The second is that this particular model was not developed with the necessary interaction between the different commodity and livestock sectors and that this model should ideally be integrated into a larger model, incorporating a larger number of commodities and policy variables. Lastly, it is important to take the nature of the good being modelled into consideration by asking whether or not the relevant product is a homogenous good. Ideally, a model of this nature would include a supply and demand function for each type of wheat that could then be estimated as a single system of equations. / Dissertation (MSc (Agric))--University of Pretoria, 2002. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted

Mycoplasma control in any poultry company requires an integrated approach involving diligent biosecurity, animal husbandry and disease surveillance. Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) infection is very costly to the broiler industry as it predisposes birds to a variety of primary and secondary respiratory diseases thus reducing production efficiency and profitability. Since the primary disease is rather insidious, relatively difficult to confirm (especially in vaccinated flocks), prone to becoming quiescent and vertically transmitted, control measures must begin at the breeder level and involve conscientious flock surveillance. While disease eradication is the best approach to MG control the economic pressures of modern broiler production often preclude such drastic measures. Vaccination programmes are often introduced to reduce the economic impact of the disease in breeder flocks and to minimize, or hopefully prevent vertical transmission. To prevent vertical transmission and lateral spread of field strain MG infection, early diagnosis is critical. Flock testing needs to be done every 2-4 weeks (depending on prevailing risk), on 90 birds (for an average flock of 7 000 birds) to satisfy statistical requirements for the detection of a 5% infection-rate with 99% confidence. The RSPA test provides an inexpensive, reliable and rapid means of evaluating the serological response to ts-11 strain vaccination during the rearing phase. A floor pen trial confirmed that, three to ten weeks after ts-11 vaccination at 10 weeks of age, the RSPA test reactor rate is between 30% and 60%. PCR was used to confirm the absence of field challenge. A retrospective analysis of 4 years of RSPA test data from broiler breeder flocks immunized with the live ts-11 strain MG vaccine indicated that traditional RSPA test monitoring protocols were unreliable as a means of differentiating ts-11 vaccination from field strain MG infection. Non-infected (PCR negative) vaccinated flocks reached sero-positive agglutination rates of 100% making the differentiation of vaccine response and field infection impossible during the lay cycle. RSPA monitoring of broiler breeders during the pullet rearing stage (0-20 weeks) was in contrast still very effective. While previously reported trials indicated that the introduction and subsequent serological monitoring of in-contact non-vaccinated sentinels may enhance the efficacy of the RSPA monitoring procedure this trial indicated that it does not. The ts-11 strain MG spread to in-contact sentinels so rapidly under field conditions that the serum agglutination pattern of these birds mimics that of the vaccinated pullets. The potential for ts-11 strain MG to spread from bird to bird is a reality and even spread from pen to pen (within the same house) may be possible if biosecurity is inadequate. The decision to vaccinate should include consideration as to the consequence of ts-11 strain MG spread to surrounding susceptible flocks. The use of molecular diagnostic techniques on pooled tracheal swabs taken from representative flock birds is a potentially cost effective and reliable means of differentiating ts-11 vaccine strain from field strain MG. PCR amplification of DNA from tracheal swab samples and strain identification based on amplicon size was shown to be a reliable and sensitive means of detecting ts-11 strain following vaccination. The proprietary PCR primer used in this trial was specifically designed to identify the ts-11 strain by amplifying a 229 bp fragment that is characteristic and distinguishable from all other MG field strain isolates based on amplicon size. This technique provides the opportunity to differentiate field strain infection from vaccine strain MG, provided strain specific PCR primers are available. It is recommended that the RSPA assay is used to differentiate effective vaccination from field exposure during pullet rearing and PCR assay is used to monitor broiler breeder flocks for MG challenge during the laying cycle and confirm that point-of-lay broiler breeder pullets are free of field strain MG infection. Where possible flocks with a confirmed field strain challenge should be eliminated and all hatching eggs removed from the hatchery and destroyed. / Dissertation (MMedVet (Altil.))--University of Pretoria, 2004. / Production Animal Studies / unrestricted

The aim of this study was to describe the histo-morphology of the full-term placenta of African buffalo and to compare placental morphology between African buffalo and cattle. African buffalo, water buffalo and cattle differ, besides numerous external features, in various reproductive parameters such as gestational length. Interest in reproduction in African buffalo, including the application of assisted reproductive technologies, has gained momentum in recent years, with the aim of finding an efficient way of a) increasing genetic diversity and b) producing “disease free” offspring of this wild ruminant species. In contrast to the many studies on placentation in domesticated bovids (cattle and water buffalo), the placenta of African buffalo has been almost completely neglected. A polycotyledonary, synepitheliochorial placenta, characterized by the development of numerous placentomes is generally described for members of the bovid family. Cattle placentomes are stalked, mushroom shaped and represent sites of anchorage and close contact between mother and foetus via interdigitation of foetal cotyledonary villi within corresponding caruncular crypts. Placentomes from 3 peri-partal, and foetal membranes from 7 post-partal African buffalo cows were collected and placentomal and cotyledonary samples prepared for light microscopy (LM), scanningand transmission Electron Microscopy (SEM, TEM). The morphology and villous-crypt architecture of buffalo placentomes as well as the histology and ultrastructure of their structural components were described. Complete foetal membranes were macroscopically examined and cotyledonary villi were studied by SEM. A comparison with cattle placentomes and foetal membranes was performed directly or via comparison with relevant descriptions available in the literature. Comparison between buffalo and cattle placentae revealed that distribution pattern and placentome size were similar in both genera but that buffalo displayed considerably more placentomes than cattle. Buffalo placentomes were, in contrast to those of cattle, non-stalked. Differences in foetal villousity included long, slender and moderately branched villi in buffalo compared to broad, conical and complexly branched villi in cattle. Comparable cell types were involved in the synepitheliochorial interhaemal placental barrier in both genera but histological evidence for the process of placental maturation seems to be less pronounced in the buffalo than in the cattle placenta. The simpler villi in the non-stalked placentomes of the African buffalo form less complex fetomaternal interdigitations, which is interpreted as providing a somewhat less efficient nutrient supply to the developing foetus. This might partly explain the longer gestation period in buffalo compared to cattle. The placenta of water buffalo also contains non-stalked placentomes, thus resembling the African buffalo placenta in this respect, indicating a closer phylogenetic relationship between the two buffalo genera than between buffalo and cattle. Results of this first study of placentomes and foetal membranes of African buffalo fills large gaps existing in ruminant placentation and may provide the basis for further research in buffalo reproduction. The similarity in placental morphology between the African buffalo and water buffalo may enhance future trials of intergeneric embryo transfer between the two buffalo genera. / Dissertation (MSc (Veterinary Science))--University of Pretoria, 2005. / Production Animal Studies / unrestricted

A study was carried out to evaluate the effect of feed processing (pelleting) on bodyweight, feed conversion and mortality in male broilers. Pelleted feed was compared to mash feed with the same specification. In addition, the effect of feed texture (feed particle size) on bodyweight, feed conversion and mortality, by using crumbles and pellets, ground crumbles and pellets, and mash was evaluated. Six thousand day-old Ross 788 male broiler chickens, originating from a specific broiler breeder flock (37 weeks old) were divided into three treatment groups of 2000 birds by systematic random sampling. The experiment was an 8 x 3 block design, with 250 broilers randomly and equally assigned to each pen. The birds were kept in a controlled environmental house and vaccinated against NCD, IB, IBD and Pneumovirus. The experiment was carried out at 1517 m above sea level, on the Highveld of South Africa. At this altitude and together with the fact that the experiment was carried out during winter (June and July 1997), no inducing methods were necessary. Mortalities were recorded daily and post mortems were done on all dead chickens and the cause of death recorded. Dead chickens were weighed individually and the weight recorded. Bacteriology was done on all the chickens that died from infectious causes to identify the specific bacteria. The bodyweight per pen was determined by weighing all the chickens per pen on day 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35 and 42 and weighing at least 20% of the chickens per pen on day 4, 11, 18, 25, 32 and 39. The feed conversion and mortality corrected feed conversion were determined on day 7, 14, 21, 28, 35 and 42. The mean live mass in kg, the percentage survivors, the feed conversion and age in days were used to calculate the production efficiency factor for each treatment group at 42 days of age. Chickens on crumbles and pellets had the highest bodyweight (2304,0 g) at 42 days of age. They were followed by the chickens on the mash diet (2054,1 g) and the lowest bodyweight was recorded on the ground crumbles and pellets (1993,5 g). The difference in bodyweight for the three treatment groups was significant (p#0,05). The pelleting process therefore did not result in better bodyweight, but the bodyweight were determined by the particle size of the feed (feed texture). The percentage weight gain per week, decreased from week one to week six. During the first week and to a lesser extent during the second week, there was a big difference in percentage weight gain between treatment groups. The chickens on the crumbles and pellets grew the fastest (230,1% during week one and 159% during week two). The weight gain for the chickens on the all-mash diet was 187,7% for week one and 153,1% for week two. The slowest weight gain was in the chickens on the ground crumbles and pellets (179,7% during week one and 143,5% during week two). The weekly weight gain in the three treatment groups from week three to week six was similar. The difference in weight gain over the first two weeks, was probably due to the difference in feed texture, because the chickens on the crumbles grew the fastest and the chickens on the ground crumbles the slowest. Eleven percent of the crumbles and 5% of the pellets were smaller than 0,6 mm. In the mash 25,0% and in the ground crumbles and pellets 41,5% of the particles were smaller than 0,6 mm. In the crumbles 44% and in the pellets 76,7% particles were greater than 3,6 mm. In the mash 7,5% and in the ground crumbles and pellets 3,5% of the particles were greater than 3,6 mm. The best FC (1,900) and mortality corrected FC (1,852) were achieved on crumbles and pellets. It differed significantly (p#0,05) from the FC (1,946) and mortality corrected FC (1,921) of chickens on ground crumbles and pellets, as well as the FC (1,963) and mortality corrected FC (1,945) of chickens on mash. There was no significant (p>0,05) difference in the FC and mortality corrected FC in the ground crumbles and pellets, and mash rations. The pelleting process on its own, did not significantly improve feed efficiency. Grinding of crumbles and pellets abolished the feed efficiency responses observed when the physical form was preserved. Particle size (feed texture) was therefore the most important factor determining feed efficiency. Mortality was the highest in chickens on crumbles and pellets (6,57%), followed by 4,03% in chickens on ground crumbles and pellets and 2,85% in chickens on mash. These differences in mortality were significant (p#0,05). The higher mortality on crumbles and pellets was mainly caused by ascites (2,11%) and SDS (1,39%), which caused 3,5% of the mortality. The most important cause of mortality in the group receiving ground crumbles and pellets was SDS (1,01%). Although the total mortality in the chickens on crumbles and pellets was the highest, the better bodyweight and FC in this group resulted in the highest PEF (269,8) at 42 days. The chickens on mash had a PEF of 242,4 and in the chickens on ground crumbles and pellets it was 233,6. The better results on crumbles and pellets are further accentuated by the net return per 2000 day-old chickens placed of R1694.70 when compared to the chickens on ground crumbles and pellets, and R1196.36 when compared to the chickens on mash. This study therefore, showed that particle size (feed texture), played the most important role in determining bodyweight and feed efficiency in broilers. To ensure the heaviest bodyweight and most efficient feed conversion on any given feed specification, it is of utmost importance that broilers receive feed as intact crumbles and pellets, with minimum damage to the crumbles and pellets. / Dissertation (MMedVet (Altil))--University of Pretoria, 2001. / Production Animal Studies / unrestricted

In recent years, South African conservation officials have noted the appearance of tumour like growths, very similar to equine sarcoids, in some Cape mountain zebra (CMZ) populations. In domestic horses, a genetic predisposition for this bovine papillomavirus-induced tumour is suspected. This investigation studied the levels of heterozygosity and population parameters such as inbreeding, within the tumour-affected populations. In comparison, CMZ populations with few or no tumours and Hartmann’s mountain zebras (HMZ) from Namibia were analysed using similar techniques. This study utilised dinucleotide repeat genetic markers called microsatellites, originally isolated from domestic horse (Equus caballus), to amplify related segments in the mountain zebras. Sixteen such fluorescent-labelled markers were amplified using polymerase chain reactions run in multiplexes. A commercial genetic analyser was used to detect the amplified markers and resulting data was analysed using STRand software. Marker visualisation and genotyping was completed using specialised open-source software. Fifteen loci were repeatedly amplified with clarity within both mountain zebra subspecies. The lowest heterozygosity and allele polymorphism levels were detected in sarcoid-tumour affected populations. All CMZ populations analysed were highly related and substructured. By comparison, Hartmann’s zebras were found to have highest levels of genetic diversity and polymorphism. The highest levels of inbreeding were found within the tumour-affected populations. High levels of heterozygote deficit found in CMZ populations, for the loci investigated, resulted in nonsignificant results when inbreeding values were analysed. This study indicates that the sarcoid tumour has been expressed in populations with the highest levels of consanguinity. The sarcoid tumour is a disease that is considered mutifactorial in aetiology and therefore other parameters such as immune status of tumour-affected populations and associated environmental variables warrant investigation. This study has simplified the archival and genotyping of individual mountain zebras. The study concludes that, among the populations tested, sarcoid tumours have been expressed in CMZ with highest levels of inbreeding. The establishment of a genetic database, incorporating information from polymorphic microsatellite markers, would assist in the conservation management of isolated CMZ populations by providing the information necessary to increase allelic diversity. / Dissertation (MSc (Production Animal Studies))--University of Pretoria, 2004. / Production Animal Studies / unrestricted

The high prices of available supplies of cereals like maize, barley, and oats has aroused considerable interest in stepping up the use of unconventional energy and protein feed sources to reduce the costs (costs of feed and total production costs) and improve the efficiency of small-scale poultry units. Dried Bakery products (DBP), is one of these unconventional ingredients produced in large quantities in South Africa, which is available for animal feeding. The aim of this study was to determine the cost effectiveness of the use of DBP with commercial rations, using the choice feeding method, without compromising performance of broilers produced in small-scale commercial poultry enterprise. A total of five hundred and seventy day-old-male broiler chicks (Ross), were assigned to three feeding treatments of 190 birds each over a period of 42 days. All the birds, in all three groups, were given a complete diet (starter mash) the first seven days. Treatment A (TA) was fed as a two stage (starter and grower ration) complete diet and acted as a control. Besides DBP acting as a substitute energy source, salt (NaCl) concentration (being a limiting factor in broiler rations) was also considered as a target for selection. Treatment B (TB) was given a starter ration up to day seven, thereafter, receiving simultaneous access to a complete diet containing a normal salt percentage and DBP. Treatment C (TC) was given starter ration to day seven, thereafter receiving simultaneous access to a complete diet containing a low salt percentage and DBP. The performance of birds was measured in terms of feed intake, weight gains, feed conversion rate and mortality. In addition, an economic evaluation (cost analysis, net profit, total physical product (TPP), average physical product (APP), marginal physical product (MPP) calculations and gross margin analysis) was done. DBP was also analysed for its nutrient composition, as well as tested for aflatoxin. The use of DBP in groups TB and TC resulted in a reduction of the feed costs by nearly a third and consequently had a positive impact on the total cost of production, net profit and gross margin analysis per live bird and per kg of live birds in contrast to the control group (TA). The TPP, APP and MPP calculations revealed that the use of DBP was beneficial during the entire production period since the value of the marginal product remained higher than the cost of DBP. This study has also confirmed that chickens are able to self-select their diets when raised under choice situations. This is shown by the performance of birds in terms of body weight, feed intake feed conversion, mortality and necropsy results. Groups TB and TC had similar body weights, feed intake, mortality % and feed conversion. The feed conversion was slightly ( but not significantly), higher for TB and TC than for TA. This suggests that the conversion of DBP into kg live weight of chickens in groups TB and TC, was at least as efficient as the control diet (TA). It can be concluded from the results, that DBP can be safely used as a viable alternative energy feed source in a small-scale broiler production system. The higher salt content of DBP did not play a significant role in choice of ration by the birds (TB and TC were not significantly different). The use of the choice feeding method was successful and showed that it was a practical alternative to computer formulation of rations, as it allows the birds to ingest a percentage of DBP in the ration to meet their growth requirements. The use of DBP and starter ration on a choice feeding system (TB and TC) rather than starter and grower ration in a two-stage system (TA) resulted in increased productivity and profitability. / Dissertation (MSc (Veterinary Sciences))--University of Pretoria, 2003. / Paraclinical Sciences / unrestricted

An increasing number of business leaders, companies, organizations and policy makers are realizing that the current linear “take-make-waste” economic model is not sustainable and need to be changed in order to decouple economic growth from natural resource consumption. One way to achieve this is to make a transition from the linear economy to a circular economy in which material flows are circular so that access to products is possible with minimum extranction of natural resources and waste generated. IKEA has already started this transition and asks for a way to measure circularity and customer satisfaction of product-service systems. The aim of this master thesis is therefore to create two models that can be used to measure and evaluate circularity and customer satisfaction of current and future product-service systems at IKEA globally. The Model for measuring circularity includes all principles of circular economy and can be used by IKEA and other retailers within different industries to optimize circularity of their current and future product-service systems. The Model for measuring customer satisfaction is based on previous questionnaires about consumers’ attitudes towards product-service systems of furniture, household products and other product types and can be used for measuring customer satisfaction when combined with the Kano Model. The Model for measuring customer satisfaction can be used by IKEA and other retailers working in the furniture industry. / Dagens linjära ekonomiska modell har visat sig ohållbar för både ekonomin, miljön och männniskor. Den orsakar bland annat brist på naturresurser, hög belastning på jordens ekosystem, prisfluktuationer på råmaterial och risker i leverantörskedjorna. Allt fler företagsledare, företag, organisationer och beslutsfattare förstår nu att den linjära ekonomiska modellen behöver ändras så att ekonomisk tillväxt frikopplas från råvaruuttag. Ett sätt att uppnå detta är att övergå från en linjär ekonomi till en cirkulär ekonomi i vilken materialföden är cirkulära så att produkter går att användas och konsumeras med minimalt råvaruuttag och genererat avfall. En cirkulär ekonomi säkrar materialtillgången, håller nere priserna på råvaror och har mycket lägre belastning på jordens ekosystem. Möbelindustrin är ett exempel på en industri som behöver bli mer cirkulär och som tjänar på att bli det. Anledningen är att möbelindustrin är resursintensiv och har sin största miljöpåverkan under tillverkningsfasen av möblerna. Det råder också konkurrens om trämaterial med den växande sektorn för förnybar energi. Genom att övergå till en cirkulär ekonomi minskar produktionen av möbler eftersom möblerna kan distribueras och säljas fler gånger, materialtillgången säkras och priserna hålls nere. IKEA har redan börjat övergå till en mer cirkulär affärsmodell och utforskar möjligheterna till att erbjuda sina kunder produkt-tjänstesystem så som uthyrning, leasing och delning av möbler och hushållsprodukter. För att IKEA ska kunna optimera cirkuläritet och kundnöjdhet av produkt- tjänstesystem behöver cirkuläritet och kundnöjdhet kunna mätas. Syftet med denna masteruppstats är därför att skapa två modeller för att mäta cirkuläritet och kundnöjdhet av produkt-tjänstesystem hos IKEA globalt. I ett senare projekt kan modellerna komma att utvecklas till ett verktyg för att mäta cirkuläritet och kundnöjdhet av produkt-tjänstesystem. Metoderna som har använts för att skapa modellerna är framför allt literaturstudier om principerna inom cirkulär ekonomi, hur miljöpresetanda och cirkuläritet hos produkt- tjänstesystem kan optimeras, vilka faktorer som påverkar kunders attityder gentemot dessa tjänster samt hur cirkuläritet och kundnöjdhet mäts och utvärderas i dag. Programmet som har använts för att designa modellerna heter Xmind 7. Modellen för att mäta cirkuläritet har även testats med olika hypotetiska produkt-tjänstesystem och blivit granskad av The EllenMacArthur Foundation samt av anställda på IKEA. Modellen för att mäta kundnöjdhet har diskuterats med en forskare vid Lunds Universitet. Samtal med IKEA har även skett kontinuerligt under arbetets gång för godkännande av modellernas utveckling. Modellen för att mäta cirkuläritet innefattar alla principer inom cirkulär ekonomi och visar på relationen mellan produkt-tjänstesystem och teorin inom cirkulär ekonomi och andra relaterade skolor. Modellen är i första hand uformad för att användas under designfasen av ett produkt- tjänstesystem men kan även användas för att mäta cirkuläritet hos existerande tjänster. Modellen är dynamisk vilket innebär att kriterier kan läggas till eller tas bort från modellen utan att dess funktionalitet äventyras. Detta är nödvändigt eftersom Modellen till viss del är produktspecifik. Modellen kan användas av detaljhandlare inom olika branscher och är inte begränsad till företag inom möbelindustrin. Modellen för att mäta kundnöjdhet av produkt-tjänstesystem är baserad på tidigare studier om faktorer som påverkar kunders attityder jäntemot produkt-tjästesystem. Den är också baserad på existerande ramverk som kan användas för att utvärdera kundnöjdhet. I kombination med Kano modellen kan Modellen användas för att mäta och utvärdera kundnöjdhet av produkt- tjänstesystem som innefattar möbler och hushållsprodukter samt hjälpa designers att prioritera vissa attribut hos tjänsten som med säkerhet ökar kundnöjdheten. Utan Kano modellen kan Modellen användas för att för en förståelse för vilka faktorer som positivt kan påverka nöjdhet och acceptans av produk-tjänstesystem som innefattar möbler och hushållaprodukter. Denna Modell är också dynamisk, vilket är nödvändigt för att den ska kunna användas globalt.