Apelin was discovered in 1998 as the endogenous peptide ligand of the orphan APJ receptor. The apelin system is well conserved across vertebrate species and is reported to have cardiovascular effects including positive inotropy, vasodilation, vasoconstriction and cardioprotection during ischaemia. Recent studies in human healthy volunteers and in chronic heart failure patients have highlighted the apelin system as a potential target for drug development. However, the cellular and molecular pathways through which apelin acts remain poorly understood. This study aimed to confirm the inotropic and vasoactive actions of apelin and to further examine the proposed cardioprotective effects of apelin under ischaemic and hypoxic conditions. Cardioprotection is defined as a mechanism, for example induced by a drug, which reduces injury in response to ischaemia or hypoxia. In vivo in the anaesthetised rat, apelin was administered as a bolus dose via the cannulated jugular vein and mean arterial pressure was measured by cannulation of the carotid artery. Pyr-apelin-13 had no effect on heart rate or mean arterial pressure. Apelin-13 decreased mean arterial pressure by approximately 20 mmHg, although the effect was highly variable among animals. Apelin-16 consistently lowered heart rate, but had no effect on mean arterial pressure. In rat isolated mesenteric arteries, studied using wire myography, apelin-13 and apelin-36 had no vasodilator or vasoconstrictor effect. In rat isolated right ventricular papillary muscles and right atrial strips, no change in tension, time to peak or time to relax was observed in response to pyr-apelin-13 despite responding to standard pharmacological stimuli such as noradrenaline and increased calcium concentrations in the bathing medium. In isolated, perfused rat heart (Langendorff), infusion of apelin-16 for 15 minutes did not alter developed pressure, rate of rise or rate of fall detected by an intraventricular balloon positioned in the left ventricle throughout the infusion. As the isolated perfused hearts did not demonstrate an inotropic effect in response to apelin, no cardioprotective studies were carried out in this model. Cardioprotective studies of apelin were performed in zebrafish embryos 3 – 5 days post fertilisation (dpf). I developed a hypoxia-recovery model in which we could test the effect of pharmacological agents, including apelin, on the hypoxia-recovery response. In zebrafish embryos 3 dpf, 2h hypoxia (1% oxygen) reduced heart rate and wall motion amplitude (to approximately 90% of control) and contraction velocity and relaxation velocity (to approximately 80% of control). All parameters recovered during a subsequent 2h in normoxia. Incubation in pyr-apelin-13 for 1h prior to and throughout hypoxia did not affect the depression in heart rate observed on exposure to hypoxia. However, apelin incubation resulted in an improvement in wall motion amplitude and relaxation velocity and a significant improvement in contraction velocity after hypoxia and throughout recovery. Pyr-apelin-13 had no inotropic or chronotropic effect on baseline heart function in embryos 3 dpf or in isolated hearts from embryos. However, apelin knockdown using a morpholino targeting the exon 2/intron 2 boundary of apelin pre-mRNA resulted in a high mortality rate and a severe total body and cardiovascular phenotype, suggesting that endogenous apelin is crucial during development in zebrafish embryos. In order to test pharmacological agents more efficiently, I developed a semi-quantitative scoring method to screen a larger number of embryos in a reduced time period. Heart rate and circulation was defined as normal, reduced or absent after 2h and 4h in hypoxia and during recovery in normoxia. The abundance of apelin and HIF-1α mRNA was measured using quantitative RT-PCR. In zebrafish 5 dpf, a marked decrease in apelin mRNA expression was observed after 4h, but not 2h, hypoxia and this was not accompanied by a change in HIF-1α mRNA expression. In zebrafish 5 dpf, exogenous pyr-apelin-13 did not affect the proportion of embryos with normal heart rate and circulation at any timepoint in this model. However, desferrioxamine (iron chelator) and α-ketoglutarate (metabolite involved in aerobic respiration) significantly increased the proportion of embryos with normal heart rate and circulation during the recovery phase. In summary, apelin-13 and apelin-16 were effective in lowering mean arterial pressure and heart rate, respectively, in the anaesthetised rat. However, apelin-13 did not vasodilate or vasoconstrict rat isolated mesenteric arteries. There was no effect of apelin on contractility parameters in rat isolated papillary muscles or in the isolated, perfused rat heart which made it difficult to pursue a cardioprotective effect in this model. In zebrafish, endogenous apelin appeared to be crucial in the development of the embryo, while exogenous apelin had no inotropic effect on cardiac function. In hypoxia-recovery, we demonstrate a cardioprotective effect of apelin in zebrafish 3 dpf, but not zebrafish 5 dpf.

Thesis (M.S.) in Biochemistry--University of Maine, 2007. / Includes vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 49-57).

No description available.

O ácido retinóico (AR) é sintetizado a partir de oxidações sucessivas do retinol. A última etapa de oxidação é catalisada pelas enzimas RALDHs. O estabelecimento da polaridade ântero-posterior (AP) do coração é crítico para a demarcação das regiões de efluxo (ventrículos) e de influxo (átrios). Nosso grupo propõe que uma onda caudo-rostral (CR) de RALDH2 seja o mecanismo responsável por esta padronização em vertebrados. Para testar o papel da sinalização pelo AR na padronização AP do peixe zebra, manipulamos sua via com o inibidor das enzimas RALDHs, DEAB, com AR e com um inibidor da enzima CYP26 (IC), que cataboliza o AR. Os tratamentos com DEAB durante o período da onda de RALDH2 produziram átrios reduzidos, enquanto que os tratados com AR e com IC apresentam o domínio atrial expandido. Animais tratados com DEAB e AR em um estágio posterior a onda não mostraram diferença significativa ao controle. Estes dados sugerem uma forte correlação entre o evento da onda e a padronização das câmaras cardíacas, semelhante ao que ocorre nos demais amniotos. / The retinoic acid (RA) is synthetized by successive oxidations of retinol. The last oxidation step is catalyzed by the RALDHs enzymes. The establishment of the anteroposterior (AP) polarity is critical for the demarcation of outflow (ventricle) and inflow (atrium) regions. Our group proposes that a caudorostral (CR) wave of RALDH2 is the mechanism responsible for this patterning in vertebrates. In order to test the role of the RA signaling in zebrafish AP patterning, we manipulated its pathway with a RALDH enzymatic inhibitor, DEAB, with RA and with a CYP26 (IC) enzymatic inhibitor, that catabolises the RA. The DEAB treatments during the manifestation of the RALDH wave produced reduced atriums; meanwhile, the treatments with RA and IC presented an atrium expansion. Animals treated with DEAB and RA during a stage posterior to the wave did not present any significant difference. These data suggest a strong correlation between the wave event and the cardiac chamber patterning, similar to the mechanism observed in others amniotes.

Chez l'Homme, la plupart des maladies cardio-vasculaires provoquent une destruction du tissu cardiaque. Ce dernier est remplacé par de la fibrose conduisant à une diminution de la fonction contractile et une augmentation de la charge ventriculaire avec des risques d’arythmie. Pour maintenir un débit cardiaque constant, les cardiomyocytes vont alors s’hypertrophier, induisant sur le long terme le développement une insuffisance cardiaque. L’augmentation de la charge ventriculaire pourrait être perçue par des mécanosenseurs tels que les canaux ioniques mecanosensibles TREK-1. Contrairement aux mammifères adultes, le cœur du poisson zèbre se régénère suite à une destruction massive du ventricule. Cette régénération se fait par un mécanisme de dédifférenciation, suivie d'une étape de prolifération des cardiomyocytes. Chez les mammifères adultes, la prolifération des cardiomyocytes pourrait être bloquée / inhibée empêchant ainsi la régénération. L’hypothèse que les gènes responsables de l’hypertrophie pathologique chez les mammifères adultes suite à l’augmentation de la charge ventriculaire, soient également responsables la prolifération des cardiomyocytes au cours de la régénération cardiaque chez le poisson zèbre est ainsi consistante. Cette étude, a montré que les canaux TREK-1a et TREK-1b du poisson zèbre possèdent des propriétés biophysiques et pharmacologiques, similaires à ceux du canal TREK-1 de mammifères, et qu’ils jouent un rôle fondamental dans la régénération cardiaque. / In humans, most cardiovascular disorders lead to the destruction of cardiac tissue which will be replaced by fibrosis, leading to arrhythmia and reduced contractile function, resulting in an increase in ventricular load. In order to maintain an overall cardiac output, cardiomyocytes undergo hypertrophic response, leading to pathological hypertrophy and heart failure. This increase in ventricular load, have to be sensed by mechanosensors such as the mechanosensitive ion channels such as TREK-1. Unlike mammals, adult zebrafish (zf) can fully regenerate their heart after an extensive insult through cardiomyocyte dedifferentiation followed by proliferation. We believe that in adult mammals, cardiomyocyte proliferation has been blocked/inhibited. Therefore it’s likely that genes which respond to increased ventricular load in mammals and trigger pathological hypertrophy will trigger cardiomyocyte proliferation during heart regeneration in zf. In this study we show that zTREK1a and zTREK1b have similar biophysical and pharmacological properties to mammalian TREK1 and they are important for successful zebrafish heart regeneration.

Les circuits neuronaux sous-tendant la locomotion requièrent d'intégrer à la fois des stimuli sensoriels et l'état physiologique. Cependant, la manière dont ces circuits fonctionnent pendant la locomotion active reste peu comprise. La larve de poisson zèbre est un organisme vertébré idéal pour étudier cette question de part son répertoire locomoteur simple et son accessibilité à la manipulation génétique. Dans le Chapitre 1, je décris le logiciel que nous avons développé afin de nous permettre de traquer les comportements et caractériser automatiquement les modules locomoteurs à haut débit. Les interneurones V2a sont des neurones excitateurs de la moelle épinière et du cerveau postérieur caractérisés par l'expression du facteur de transcription chx10. Afin de tester leur implication dans la locomotion, j'ai, dans le Chapitre 2, validé l'utilisation d'une toxine génétiquement encodée dans le but d'inhiber la population chx10 positive in vivo. Par analyse comportementale, enregistrements de locomotion fictive et imagerie calcique, nous avons montré que les V2as sont impliqués différemment dans la locomotion lente et rapide. Les neurones contactant le liquide céphalorachidien (NcLCRs) relaient des informations sensorielles aux circuits moteurs. Par ciblage génétique, imagerie calcique, pharmacologie et électrophysiologie, j'ai, dans le Chapitre 3, investigué le rôle de l'activité spontanée dans les NcLCRs. J'ai montré que l'ouverture de canaux PKD2L1 représentait une source intrinsèque d'activité spontanée dans les NcLCRs. Ces résultats offrent une meilleure compréhension de la manière dont les interactions dynamiques structurent les sorties locomotrices in vivo. / The neural networks that underlie locomotion are complex and require integration of sensory input and physiological state. However, how these networks function during active locomotion to incorporate sensory input from the environment and the internal state of the animal remains poorly understand. The zebrafish larva is an ideal vertebrate to study these questions thanks to its simple locomotor repertoire, transparency, and amenability to genetic manipulation. In Chapter 1, I describe a program to track behavior at high speeds and automatically characterize locomotor patterns in a high-throughput manner. V2a interneurons are excitatory interneurons in the spinal cord and hindbrain identified by the chx10 transcription factor. In Chapter 2, I validated the use of a genetically-encoded botulinum toxin to silence the chx10 population in vivo. Using fictive locomotor recordings and calcium imaging, I demonstrated that silencing V2as leads to decreased activity in primary motor neurons during fast swimming, corresponding to a lower swimming frequency in V2a-silenced larvae. Cerebrospinal fluid-contacting neurons (CSF-cNs) are intraspinal neurons that relay sensory information to motor circuits. CSF-cNs in diverse species express GABA and the transient receptor potential channel PKD2L1. In Chapter 3, I used genetic targeting, calcium imaging, pharmacology, and electrophysiology to investigate the role of spontaneous activity in CSF-cNs. I showed that single channel opening of PKD2L1 represents an intrinsic source of spontaneous activity in CSF-cNs. These tools and results will allow a more complete picture of how dynamic interactions shape locomotor output in vivo.

O ácido retinóico (AR) é sintetizado a partir de oxidações sucessivas do retinol. A última etapa de oxidação é catalisada pelas enzimas RALDHs. O estabelecimento da polaridade ântero-posterior (AP) do coração é crítico para a demarcação das regiões de efluxo (ventrículos) e de influxo (átrios). Nosso grupo propõe que uma onda caudo-rostral (CR) de RALDH2 seja o mecanismo responsável por esta padronização em vertebrados. Para testar o papel da sinalização pelo AR na padronização AP do peixe zebra, manipulamos sua via com o inibidor das enzimas RALDHs, DEAB, com AR e com um inibidor da enzima CYP26 (IC), que cataboliza o AR. Os tratamentos com DEAB durante o período da onda de RALDH2 produziram átrios reduzidos, enquanto que os tratados com AR e com IC apresentam o domínio atrial expandido. Animais tratados com DEAB e AR em um estágio posterior a onda não mostraram diferença significativa ao controle. Estes dados sugerem uma forte correlação entre o evento da onda e a padronização das câmaras cardíacas, semelhante ao que ocorre nos demais amniotos. / The retinoic acid (RA) is synthetized by successive oxidations of retinol. The last oxidation step is catalyzed by the RALDHs enzymes. The establishment of the anteroposterior (AP) polarity is critical for the demarcation of outflow (ventricle) and inflow (atrium) regions. Our group proposes that a caudorostral (CR) wave of RALDH2 is the mechanism responsible for this patterning in vertebrates. In order to test the role of the RA signaling in zebrafish AP patterning, we manipulated its pathway with a RALDH enzymatic inhibitor, DEAB, with RA and with a CYP26 (IC) enzymatic inhibitor, that catabolises the RA. The DEAB treatments during the manifestation of the RALDH wave produced reduced atriums; meanwhile, the treatments with RA and IC presented an atrium expansion. Animals treated with DEAB and RA during a stage posterior to the wave did not present any significant difference. These data suggest a strong correlation between the wave event and the cardiac chamber patterning, similar to the mechanism observed in others amniotes.

Les connexions neuronales du système visuel forment des synapses spatialement distribuées en couches discrètes. Comprendre la base du ciblage spécifique axonale est critique pour déchiffrer la formation des réseaux neuronaux complexes. Dans une première étude, nous avons investigué le rôle de la protéine de la matrice extracellulaire Reelin dans la formation in vivo du circuit rétinotectal chez le poisson zèbre. Ce circuit se compose de cellules ganglionnaires de la rétine (CGRs) transmettant l’information visuelle au cerveau via la projection de leur axone dans les différentes couches du tectum optique. Nous avons démontré que la Reelin secrétée par de neurones inhibiteurs localisés dans les couches supérieures du tectum optique forme un gradient. L’induction de mutations délétères dans la voie de signalisation canonicale de la Reelin à l’aide d’outils génétiques a conduit à des défauts de ciblage des axones de CGRs. Nos résultats démontrent un nouveau rôle de la Reelin lors du développement du système visuel et la décrivent comme signature moléculaire nécessaire au ciblage et au positionnement précis des axones de CGRs.Dans une seconde étude, nous avons utilisé la technique CRISPR/Cas9 pour développer une nouvelle approche de mutagénèse conditionnelle chez le poisson zèbre. Nos résultats démontrent que la perturbation de gènes dans des tissues spécifiques peut être effectué par l’induction de l’expression de la protéine Cas9 via le système Gal4/UAS. Nous avons établis un outil pour induire l’apparition de mutations délétères dans des clones de cellules mais aussi dans des cellules individuelles, tous pouvant être suivit distinctement grâce à un marquage génétique. / Neuronal connections in the visual system are arranged in synaptic laminae. Understanding the basis of lamina-specific axonal targeting is critical to gain deeper insights on how complex neural networks form. In a first study we investigated the role of the ECM protein Reelin during zebrafish retinotectal circuit formation in vivo. Here retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) convey the visual information to the brain by projecting their axons to different layers of the optic tectum. We demonstrated that Reelin secreted by a specific class of tectal superficial inhibitory neurons is spatially distributed in a superficial-to-deep gradient within the tectal neuropil. Induced gene disruption for all the components of the canonical Reelin pathway expressed in the retinotectal system resulted in aberrant layering of RGC axons suggesting a role for Reelin pathway in axonal sublaminar segregation. Altogether our findings elucidate a new role for Reelin in vertebrate visual system development, during which it acts as molecular cue by imparting positional information for ingrowing RGCs.In a second study we took advantage of the CRISPR/Cas9 technology to develop a novel approach for conditional mutagenesis in zebrafish. Our results provide evidence that tissue-specific gene disruption can be achieved by driving Cas9 expression with the Gal4/UAS system. We established a tool to induce loss-of-function mutations in cell clones or single cells that can be followed by genetic labeling, enabling their phenotypic analysis. Our technique has the potential to be applied to a wide-range of model organisms, allowing systematic mutagenesis and labeling on a genome-wide scale.

Smith-Magenis Syndrome (SMS; OMIM #182290) is a multiple congenital abnormality and intellectual disability (ID) disorder caused by either an interstitial deletion of the 17p11.2 region containing the retinoic acid induced-1 (RAI1) gene or a mutation of the RAI1 gene. Individuals diagnosed with SMS typically present characteristics such as ID, self-injurious behavior, sleep disturbance, ocular and otolaryngological abnormalities, craniofacial and skeletal abnormalities, neurological and behavioral abnormalities, as well as other systemic defects and manifestations. Previous work by Vyas in 2009 showed temporal expression of rai1 in zebrafish embryos as early as 9 hpf. We hypothesize that there is maternal rai1 expression as early as zero hours post fertilization in wild type embryos. Using end-point PCR, we found that in fact there is maternal rai1 expression is detectable as early as 2 hours post fertilization (hpf) in wild type zebrafish embryos. Furthermore, we quantified rai1 expression using qPCR and found that rai1 expression declines significantly after 6 hpf. We hypothesize that a down regulation of rai1 or loss of rai1 will lead to morphological phenotypes, especially if that loss of rai1 function occurs during the earliest stages of zebrafish embryogenesis. Using a rai1morpholino oligonucleotide (MO), we found a loss of rai1 expression did not induce a morphological phenotype in in wild type embryos; furthermore, we also found that a loss of maternal rai1 expression did not induce a morphological phenotype as well. Utilizing a mutant rai1 zebrafish line, we found that both rai1 +/fh370 progeny nor rai1 fh370/fh370 progeny exhibited a morphological phenotype and that downstream targets such as bdnf were not affected by a reduction or complete loss of rai1. Prior research has shown that retinoic acid (RA) can induce rai1 expression. We hypothesize that RA can induce expression of rai1 during zebrafish embryogenesis. Using wild type fish and a rai1 in situ hybridization probe, we found that RA treatment at 25 hpf induced expression of rai1. The construction of a rai1 overexpression vector used for overexpression studies was started. Further development of GFP expression vector and zebrafish rai1 antibody are needed to determine if the morpholino is reducing rai1 protein expression.