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First language influence on second language syntactic processing of English relative clauses

Fluent sentence comprehension requires the automatic application of grammatical principles, in combination with other kinds of information, to a linear input string. The latter can vary greatly in complexity, and it has been observed that structures that involve non-adjacent relationships (non-local dependencies) cause particular processing difficulties, for even fluent readers. This thesis focuses on the potential role that L1 transfer plays in processing non-local dependencies in the L2. Although L1 transfer has been demonstrated in a variety of L2 domains (Juffs, 2005), the degree to which L1 syntactic properties influence the L2 in real-time processing remains an open question (Clahsen & Felser, 2006b). A better understanding of L1 influence on L2 processing has important implications for emerging models of L2 sentence processing and SLA theory in general. This thesis examines L1 effects on the processing of L2 English relative clauses. It builds on established models of L1 relative clause processing (e.g., Gibson, 1998) and focuses on the asymmetry observed in the processing of subject versus object relative clauses. Research has shown that L1 individuals find object relative clauses more difficult to process than their subject counterparts (King & Just, 1991), and off-line L2 research suggests that this asymmetry might hold for L2 processing as well (Izumi, 2003; Kanno, 2007). This thesis will examine the asymmetry on-line and investigate the role that L1 background plays in on-line performance, both alone and in combination with other processing factors. The main data are on-line performance by three groups of advanced-level learners of L2 English from Japan, China, and Vietnam. The three L1s differ from English to varying degrees in relative clause formation, as reflected in head direction, branching direction and the presence of an overt relative marker. Vietnamese shares all three properties with English and Japanese none, leading to the prediction that the Japanese learners will have the greatest difficulty, as evident in the largest subject/object asymmetry in processing times. Evidence for the effect of L1 syntactic properties on L2 processing will be sought in a set of studies that compare processing outcomes for these learners across key individual difference factors in L2 processing, working memory capacity, lexical processing efficiency, and proficiency. The effect of non-structural information, in the form of animacy contrasts and frequency effects, on L2 syntactic processing across the L1 groups will also be examined. By systematically examining group differences across these key factors, the degree and nature of potential L1 influence on the processing of these non-local dependencies can be better assessed. Three groups of advanced-level L2 English learners from China, Japan, and Vietnam, a group of intermediate-level learners in Japan, and native English controls participated in the data collection. Participants were first tested on a battery of individual difference measures that established language proficiency and general processing skill for individual participants and groups. On-line reading data of relative clause structures were then collected and reported in a set of five studies. Study 1 examined reading when the target structures contained high frequency content words, which minimized word recognition demands. Advanced L2 learners took longer to read object relative clauses, and the difference was the greatest for the Japanese group. Study 2 revealed that the subject/object asymmetry and L1 influence evident in Study 1 disappeared when word recognition was effortful, as in sentences with low frequency words, suggesting that L1 syntactic influence may only be evident when lexical processing is relatively automatic. Study 3 examined the effect of proficiency differences on processing outcomes by comparing performance by Intermediate and Advanced Japanese learners. The Intermediate learners showed no subject/object asymmetry in sentences with high frequency words, providing further evidence that processing efficiency is a key factor when considering possible L1 effects in L2 processing. Study 4 demonstrated that advanced L2 learners benefited from animacy cues in on-line processing, with the difficulty associated with object relative sentences and the L1 effect evident in sentences with animate head nouns neutralized in sentences with inanimate head nouns. The findings indicate that L2 learners may rely on lexical information as an alternative to syntactic knowledge in some cases. Finally, Study 5 compared processing performance on full or reduced relative clauses to examine both the influence of L1 syntactic properties and L1 structural frequency biases on L2 processing outcomes. Although the influence of frequency information was not evident, the results suggested that the availability of an overt relative marker in the L1 affected L2 processing outcomes. Overall, the results provide some support for the view that L1 background influences the processing of complex syntactic structures in the L2, a finding consistent with Juffs (2005) but contrary to Clahsen et al. (Clahsen & Felser, 2006b). However, the effect is sensitive to a range of factors, which appears to support the claim by the latter that L2 learners may rely more on lexical-semantic information than L1 individuals.