Background: Ecosystem services and disservices research from urban ecological infrastructure currently remain under-explored areas in global literature. Community gardens comprise an even rarer part of this research with few previous studies, as emphasis in research is placed on the ‘big and tangible’ urban green spaces like urban forests and parks, and more recently allotment gardens. Community gardens, however, are an important ecological infrastructure as they provide a range of ecosystem services to urban residents, and act as key spaces for meeting social and environmental objectives in urban development plans and policies. Considering cities are the predominant domain of human habitation, it is important that more research goes into better identifying ecosystem services and disservices from urban green space types, in light of global and local sustainable urban development goals.
Methods: Using the cities of Berlin and Cape Town as case studies, this study inventories the range of ecosystem services and disservices provisioned by urban community gardens. A total of 26 gardens across both cities were assessed using in-depth field surveys based on indicators derived from the literature and a ranked-scale questionnaire was answered by 46 participants.
Results: Community gardens provide important ecosystem services such as food provisioning, local climate regulation, high species richness of vascular plants, are valued highly by gardeners and local residents for their numerous recreation, tourism and social activities, and foster new principles of socio-environmental thinking and practice in neighbourhoods. Gardens are also found to deliver a few disservices that may influence human health like increasing potentials for allergy problems caused by the spread of pollen from the urban nature in them, and can cause economic impacts if the vegetation damages garden infrastructure. It is important to recognise both the benefits and detriments from these urban green spaces so as to better manage them and minimise their impacts and trade-offs to human well-being.
Conclusion: Outcomes of this research identify new ecosystem services and disservices inventories and make the net benefit of community gardens explicitly known, which gives credence to their value as a legitimate urban land-use by planners and related decision-makers. Findings show community gardens have a very relevant place in German and South African urban ecosystems research, and this project can significantly impact future work by strengthening the foundation from which we base our understanding – the collection and interpretation of new data. Finally, conclusions show that community gardens can contribute to sustainable urban development in local contexts, and promote Great Transition thinking.:Table of Contents
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………...i
Declaration………………………………………………………………………………….ii
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………..……...iii
Table of Contents…......…………………………………………………………………..iv
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………….xi
List of Figures …………………………….……………………………………………..xiv
Chapter One: Introduction……………………………...………………………………...1
1.1. Problem contextualisation …………………………………………..………………1
1.1.1. The changing environment ……………………………………………….....…...1
1.1.2. Ecosystems as the foundation of life ……………………………………………1
1.1.3. Century of the city …………………………………………………………………2
1.1.4. Sustainable Development and the Great Transition ………………………..…4
1.2. Problem statement ……………………………………………….………………….7
1.2.1. Ecosystem services …………………………………………………......………..7
1.2.2. Ecosystem disservices ………………………………………………......……….9
1.2.3. Urban ecosystems and ecological infrastructure .....………………………….11
1.2.4. Aim and objectives ……………………...…...…………………………………..13
1.3. Thesis overview …………………………………………………………..………..14
Chapter Two: State of Research …………………………………………………...….16
2.1. Introduction ……………………………………………………...………………….16
2.2. The role and function of community gardens as urban ecosystems ………....16
2.2.1. Definition of community gardens …………………………………………….....16
2.2.2. Historical context and multi-functional purposes of community gardens …..17
2.2.3. Ecosystem services in community gardens ………………………………......18
2.2.4. Community gardens as the assessment unit for this project ……………......19
2.3. Integrating ecosystem services and disservices concepts into urban planning, environmental management and governance …………………………………….....19
2.3.1. The role of ecosystem services and disservices in urban planning ………..20
2.3.2. The role of ecosystem services and disservices in urban environmental management …………............................................................................................21
2.3.3. The role of ecosystem services and disservices in urban governance …….23
2.4. Research on urban ecosystem services and disservices …………….......…...25
2.4.1. Urban ecosystem services research ……………..………………………........26
2.4.1.1. Categories of ecosystem services in the literature …………………….......26
2.4.1.2. Types of ecological infrastructure in ecosystem services research ……...29
2.4.1.3. Research perspectives in ecosystem services literature ……………….…29
2.4.1.4. Methodology used in ecosystem services research ……………….....…...31
2.4.2. Urban ecosystem disservices research ………………………..……………...33
2.4.2.1. Categories of ecosystem disservices in the literature ………………..……33
2.4.2.2. Types of ecological infrastructure in ecosystem disservices research ......34
2.4.2.3. Research perspectives in ecosystem disservices literature ………………35
2.4.2.4. Methodology used in ecosystem disservices research …………..………..37
2.4.3. Summary of results ………………………………………………………………38
2.5. Research on urban ecosystem services and disservices: Germany and South Africa ……………………...................................................................................…...39
2.5.1. Germany ……………………………………………………..……………………39
2.5.2. South Africa ………………………………………………………………….…...42
2.5.3. Summary of results ………………………………………………………………44
2.6. Research on ecosystem services and disservices from urban gardens with an emphasis on community gardens ……………………………………………………..45
2.6.1. Allotment gardens ………………………………………………………………..45
2.6.2. Home gardens ……………………………………………………………………47
2.6.3. Community gardens ………………………………………………………...…...48
2.6.4. Synthesis ………………………………………………………….………………50
2.7. Conclusions …………………………………………………..…………………….51
Chapter Three: Methods ……..………………………………………………….....…..53
3.1. Introduction ………………………………………………………………………….53
3.2. Case study analysis ………………………………………………………………..55
3.2.1. Case study design ………………………………..……………………………...55
3.2.2. Case study selection …………………………………...………………………..55
3.2.3. Case study methods ……………………………………..………………………56
3.3. Quantification of community garden share ………………………………….…..57
3.3.1. GIS methods ……………………………....……………………………………..57
3.4. Ecosystem services and disservices assessments …………………………….58
3.4.1. Indicator analysis ………………………………………………………………...58
3.4.2. Field protocol ……………………………………….....………………………….65
3.4.2.1. Site walkover procedure and field protocol checklist …………….………...66
3.4.3. Questionnaire …………………………………………………………………….67
3.5. Data-synthesis, -results and -conclusions …………....…………………………70
3.5.1. Quantitative data …………………………………………....……………………70
3.5.2. Qualitative data …………………………………………………………………..70
3.5.3. Burkhard-type matrices ………………………………………………………….71
3.6. Data reliability ………………………………...…………………………………….72
3.7. Data validity …………………………………………………………………………73
3.8. Ethical considerations ………………………………………….………………….73
3.9. Conclusions ……………………………………......……………………………….74
Chapter Four: Case Study Cities ………………………………….……….......……...75
4.1. Introduction …………………………...…………………………………………….75
4.2. Case study: Berlin ………………………..………………………………………...75
4.2.1. Geographical location and demographic set-up ……………………..……….75
4.2.2. Landscape and climate …………………….....………………………………...76
4.2.3. Administrative structure and governance …………………………...………...77
4.2.4. Socio-economic contextualisation …………………………………..………….78
4.2.5. Urban green …………………………………....………………………………...79
4.2.6. Urban gardening regulations ……………………………………….…………..80
4.3. Case study: Cape Town …………………………………………………………...81
4.3.1. Geographical location and demographic set-up …………………………..….81
4.3.2. Landscape and climate ……………………………..…………………………...82
4.3.3. Administrative structure and governance …………………………...………...84
4.3.4. Socio-economic contextualisation ……………………………………..……….85
4.3.5. Urban green ……………………………………....……………………………...85
4.3.6. Urban gardening regulations ……………………………….…………………..86
4.4. Conclusions ………………………..……………………………………………….87
Chapter Five: Results ………………………………………………………….………..88
5.1. Introduction ………………………………………………………………………….88
5.2. Community garden share ………………………………………………………….88
5.3. Ecosystem services assessments ……………………………………....……….92
5.3.1. Provisioning services …………………………………………………………….92
5.3.1.1. Food …………………………………………………………………....……….92
5.3.1.1.1. Crops ……………………………………………………….....……………...92
5.3.1.1.2. Livestock …………………………………………………….....…………….96
5.3.1.2. Raw materials ………………………………………………………......……...98
5.3.1.3. Fresh water supply ………………………………………………….…………99
5.3.1.4. Medicinal resources …………………………………………….....…………102
5.3.2. Regulating services ………………………...…………………………………..104
5.3.2.1. Local climate regulation ………………………………………………….….104
5.3.2.2. Local air quality regulation ……………………………………………….….109
5.3.2.3. Moderation of extreme events: rain and wind storms, flood prevention........................................................................................................…..112
5.3.2.4. Water flow regulation and runoff mitigation ……………....………………..114
5.3.2.5. Erosion prevention and maintenance of soil fertility ……………………...116
5.3.3. Habitat/Supporting services …………………………………..……………….118
5.3.3.1. Maintenance of genetic diversity ……………………………………………118
5.3.4. Cultural services ………………………………………………………………..128
5.3.4.1. Recreation and mental and physical health …………………....………….128
5.3.4.2. Tourism………………………………....……………………………………...131
5.3.4.3. Aesthetic appreciation and inspiration for culture, art, design …......……133
5.3.4.4. Spiritual experience and sense of place ……………………………...…...135
5.3.5. Discussion of major ecosystem services findings …………………..………138
5.4. Ecosystem disservices assessments ……………………...…………………...142
5.4.1. Ecological impacting disservices ……………………………….....………….142
5.4.1.1. Displacement of native by invasive species that cause harm …………...142
5.4.2. Economic impacting disservices …………………………………….………..145
5.4.2.1. Damage to infrastructure by nature ………………………….....………….145
5.4.2.2. Costs associated with repairs and maintenance of urban vegetation/nature ………...................................................................................................................146
5.4.3. Health impacting disservices ……………………………..…………………...148
5.4.3.1. Allergies/respiratory problems caused by the spread of pollen …….…...148
5.4.3.2. Wild or semi-wild animals in urban green spaces that cause anxiety over fear of attack, safety or inconvenience ……………………………………………...151
5.4.4. Psychological impacting disservices …………………………………………153
5.4.4.1. Certain smells, sounds or behaviours from people, plants and animals may be considered a nuisance or cause annoyance ………………………………........153
5.4.4.2. Aesthetic and hygiene impacts due to animal excrement …………….…155
5.4.4.3. Aesthetic unpleasantness due to dense/overgrown vegetation …………156
5.4.4.4. Psychological feelings of insecurity/fear associated with overgrown or dark urban green spaces ………….………………………………………………………..157
5.4.4.5. Vegetation blocking views ………………………………….....…………….159
5.4.5. General impacting disservices on human well-being ……………….……...161
5.4.5.1. Presence of protected species can restrict the uses of an area, hindering benefit of those seeking to enjoy nature ………………………….…………………161
5.4.6. Discussion of major ecosystem disservices findings ……………….………162
5.5. Final assessment of results using Burkhard-type matrices …………….…….165
5.5.1. Ecosystem services …………………………......……………………………..166
5.5.2. Ecosystem disservices ……………………………..………………………….168
5.5.3. Synthesis ………………………………………………………………………..169
5.6. Conclusions ………………………..……………………………………………...170
Chapter Six: Discussion…………….………………………………………………….172
6.1. Introduction ……………...………………………………………………………...172
6.2. Meeting objectives ……………………………………..…………………………172
6.2.1. Calculate the quantitative share of urban community gardens in Berlin and Cape Town ………................................................................................................173
6.2.2. Identify suitable sampling community gardens in Berlin and Cape Town from which to assess existing ecosystems services and disservices ………………….174
6.2.3. Identify and assess which ecosystems services and disservices are provided by the chosen sampling community gardens in Berlin and Cape Town …….…...175
6.2.4. Demonstrate the relevance and contribution of community gardens to sustainable urban development and the Great Transition ……..………………….176
6.3. Limitations of the study …………….....………………………………………….178
6.3.1 Methods …………………………………..………………………………………178
6.3.2. Field work ……………………………………………..…………………………179
6.4. Outlook …………………………………………………………………………….180
6.4.1. Implications for research ………………………………………..……………..180
6.4.2. Implications for policy and practice ………………………………………..….182
6.5. Conclusions …………………………………………..…………………………...184
Chapter Seven: Conclusions …………………………………………………..……..186
7.1. Summary of thesis …………………………………………………….………….186
7.2. General conclusions …………………………………………………….………..187
7.3 Final insights …………………………………………………...…………………..189
References ………………………………...…………………………………………...190
Appendices ……………………………………………………………………………..223
Appendix A – Comprehensive lists of ecosystem services and disservices indicators derived from the literature ……………….………………………………..223
Appendix B – Field Protocol: site walkover procedure (A) and field protocol checklist (B) ……………...............................................................................…….231
Appendix C – Questionnaire disseminated in this study .………………………….238
Appendix D – Additional information for results of ecosystem services and disservices assessments …….........................................................................…..251
Appendix E – Full calculations of final assessment scores used in Burkhard-type matrices ……………….....................................................................................….320
| Identifer | oai:union.ndltd.org:DRESDEN/oai:qucosa:de:qucosa:32365 |
| Date | 06 December 2018 |
| Creators | Duthie, Tristan |
| Contributors | Universität Leipzig |
| Source Sets | Hochschulschriftenserver (HSSS) der SLUB Dresden |
| Language | English |
| Detected Language | English |
| Type | info:eu-repo/semantics/acceptedVersion, doc-type:doctoralThesis, info:eu-repo/semantics/doctoralThesis, doc-type:Text |
| Rights | info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccess |
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